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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 376    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 377
 378    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 379    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 380
 381    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 382    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 383
 384    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 385    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 386
 387    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 388    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 389
 390    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 391        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 401    }
 402
 403    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 404        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 405        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 406        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 407        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 408        "DAYS": "DAY",
 409        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 410        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 411        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 412        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 413    }
 414
 415    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 416        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 417        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 418        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 419        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 420            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 421            if e.args.get("windows")
 422            else ""
 423        ),
 424        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 425    }
 426
 427    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 428
 429    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 430
 431    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 432    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 433
 434    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 435        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 437        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 461        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 464        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 469        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 474        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 475        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 477        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 480        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 483        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 486        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 494        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 500        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 516        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519    }
 520
 521    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 522    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 523
 524    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 525    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 526        exp.Command,
 527        exp.Create,
 528        exp.Delete,
 529        exp.Drop,
 530        exp.From,
 531        exp.Insert,
 532        exp.Join,
 533        exp.Select,
 534        exp.SetOperation,
 535        exp.Update,
 536        exp.Where,
 537        exp.With,
 538    )
 539
 540    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 541    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 542        exp.Binary,
 543        exp.SetOperation,
 544    )
 545
 546    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 547    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 548        exp.Column,
 549        exp.Literal,
 550        exp.Neg,
 551        exp.Paren,
 552    )
 553
 554    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 555        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 556        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 557        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 558        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 559    }
 560
 561    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 562    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 563
 564    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 565
 566    __slots__ = (
 567        "pretty",
 568        "identify",
 569        "normalize",
 570        "pad",
 571        "_indent",
 572        "normalize_functions",
 573        "unsupported_level",
 574        "max_unsupported",
 575        "leading_comma",
 576        "max_text_width",
 577        "comments",
 578        "dialect",
 579        "unsupported_messages",
 580        "_escaped_quote_end",
 581        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 582        "_next_name",
 583    )
 584
 585    def __init__(
 586        self,
 587        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 588        identify: str | bool = False,
 589        normalize: bool = False,
 590        pad: int = 2,
 591        indent: int = 2,
 592        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 593        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 594        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 595        leading_comma: bool = False,
 596        max_text_width: int = 80,
 597        comments: bool = True,
 598        dialect: DialectType = None,
 599    ):
 600        import sqlglot
 601        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 602
 603        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 604        self.identify = identify
 605        self.normalize = normalize
 606        self.pad = pad
 607        self._indent = indent
 608        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 609        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 610        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 611        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 612        self.comments = comments
 613        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 614
 615        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 616        self.normalize_functions = (
 617            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 618        )
 619
 620        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 621        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 622            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 623        )
 624        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 625            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 626        )
 627
 628        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 629
 630    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 631        """
 632        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 633
 634        Args:
 635            expression: The syntax tree.
 636            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 637                it is safer to copy.
 638
 639        Returns:
 640            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 641        """
 642        if copy:
 643            expression = expression.copy()
 644
 645        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 646
 647        self.unsupported_messages = []
 648        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 649
 650        if self.pretty:
 651            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 652
 653        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 654            return sql
 655
 656        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 657            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 658                logger.warning(msg)
 659        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 660            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 661
 662        return sql
 663
 664    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 665        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 666        if (
 667            not expression.parent
 668            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 669            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 670        ):
 671            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 672
 673            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 674
 675        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 676            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 677
 678            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 679
 680        return expression
 681
 682    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 683        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 684            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 685        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 686
 687    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 688        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 689
 690    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 691        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 692
 693    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 694        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 695        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 696        return comment
 697
 698    def maybe_comment(
 699        self,
 700        sql: str,
 701        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 702        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 703        separated: bool = False,
 704    ) -> str:
 705        comments = (
 706            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 707            if self.comments
 708            else None
 709        )
 710
 711        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 712            return sql
 713
 714        comments_sql = " ".join(
 715            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 716        )
 717
 718        if not comments_sql:
 719            return sql
 720
 721        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 722
 723        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 724            return (
 725                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 726                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 727                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 728            )
 729
 730        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 731
 732    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 733        this_sql = (
 734            self.sql(expression)
 735            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 736            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 737        )
 738        if not this_sql:
 739            return "()"
 740
 741        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 742        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 743
 744    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 745        original = self.identify
 746        self.identify = False
 747        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 748        self.identify = original
 749        return result
 750
 751    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 752        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 753            return name.upper()
 754        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 755            return name.lower()
 756        return name
 757
 758    def indent(
 759        self,
 760        sql: str,
 761        level: int = 0,
 762        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 763        skip_first: bool = False,
 764        skip_last: bool = False,
 765    ) -> str:
 766        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 767            return sql
 768
 769        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 770        lines = sql.split("\n")
 771
 772        return "\n".join(
 773            (
 774                line
 775                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 776                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 777            )
 778            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 779        )
 780
 781    def sql(
 782        self,
 783        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 784        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 785        comment: bool = True,
 786    ) -> str:
 787        if not expression:
 788            return ""
 789
 790        if isinstance(expression, str):
 791            return expression
 792
 793        if key:
 794            value = expression.args.get(key)
 795            if value:
 796                return self.sql(value)
 797            return ""
 798
 799        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 800
 801        if callable(transform):
 802            sql = transform(self, expression)
 803        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 804            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 805
 806            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 807                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 808            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 809                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 810            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 811                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 812            else:
 813                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 814        else:
 815            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 816
 817        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 818
 819    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 820        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 822        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 823
 824    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 825        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 826        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        options = expression.args.get("options")
 828        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 829        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 830        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 831        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 833
 834    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 835        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 836            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 837        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 838        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 839
 840    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 841        return ".".join(
 842            self.sql(part)
 843            for part in (
 844                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 845                expression.args.get("db"),
 846                expression.args.get("table"),
 847                expression.args.get("this"),
 848            )
 849            if part
 850        )
 851
 852    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 853        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 854
 855        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 856            join_mark = ""
 857            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 858
 859        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 860
 861    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 864        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 865        return f"{position}{this}"
 866
 867    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 868        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 870        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 871        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 872        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 873        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 874        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 875        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 876
 877        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 878            kind = ""
 879
 880        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 881
 882    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 884        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 885        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 886
 887    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 889        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 890            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 891        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 892            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 893        else:
 894            persisted = ""
 895        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 896
 897    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 898        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 899
 900    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 901        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 902            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 903        else:
 904            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 905
 906        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 907
 908    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 909        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 910    ) -> str:
 911        this = ""
 912        if expression.this is not None:
 913            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 914            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 915
 916        start = expression.args.get("start")
 917        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 918        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 919        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 920        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 921        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 922        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 923        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 924        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 925        cycle_sql = ""
 926
 927        if cycle is not None:
 928            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 929            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 930
 931        sequence_opts = ""
 932        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 933            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 934            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 935
 936        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 937        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 938
 939        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 940
 941    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 942        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 943    ) -> str:
 944        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 945        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 946        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 947
 948    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 949        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 950    ) -> str:
 951        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 952
 953    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 954        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 955
 956    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 957        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 958
 959    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 961        if desc is not None:
 962            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 963        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 964
 965    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 968        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 969        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 970        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 971        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 972        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 973        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 974
 975    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 976        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 977
 978    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 979        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 980        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 981        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 982
 983        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 984
 985        properties_sql = ""
 986        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 987            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 988        ):
 989            properties_sql = self.sql(
 990                exp.Properties(
 991                    expressions=[
 992                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 994                    ]
 995                )
 996            )
 997
 998            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 999                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1000            elif not self.pretty:
1001                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1002                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1003
1004        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1005        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1006
1007        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1008        if expression_sql:
1009            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1010
1011            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1012                postalias_props_sql = ""
1013                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1014                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1015                        exp.Properties(
1016                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1017                        ),
1018                        wrapped=False,
1019                    )
1020                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1021                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1022
1023        postindex_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1025            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1027                wrapped=False,
1028                prefix=" ",
1029            )
1030
1031        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1032        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1033        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1034
1035        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1036        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1037        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1038
1039        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1040        if clustered is None:
1041            clustered_sql = ""
1042        elif clustered:
1043            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1044        else:
1045            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1046
1047        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1048        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1049            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1050                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1051                sep=" ",
1052                prefix=" ",
1053                wrapped=False,
1054            )
1055
1056        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1057
1058        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1059        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1060            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1061                exp.Properties(
1062                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1063                ),
1064                sep=" ",
1065                prefix=" ",
1066                wrapped=False,
1067            )
1068
1069        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1070        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1071        no_schema_binding = (
1072            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1073        )
1074
1075        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1076        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1077
1078        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1079        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1080
1081    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1082        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1083        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1084        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1085        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1086        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1087        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1088        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1089        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1090        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1091        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1092
1093        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1094        if cache is None:
1095            cache_str = ""
1096        elif cache is True:
1097            cache_str = " CACHE"
1098        else:
1099            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1100
1101        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1102        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1103
1104        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1105
1106    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1109        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1110        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1111
1112    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1113        style = expression.args.get("style")
1114        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1115        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1116
1117    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1118        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1119        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1120
1121    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1122        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1123        if with_:
1124            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1125        return sql
1126
1127    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1128        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1129        recursive = (
1130            "RECURSIVE "
1131            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1132            else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1136
1137    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1138        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1139
1140        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1141        if materialized is False:
1142            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1143        elif materialized:
1144            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1145
1146        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1147
1148    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1149        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1150        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1151        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1152
1153        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1154            columns = ""
1155            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1156
1157        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1158            alias = self._next_name()
1159
1160        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1161
1162    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1165            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1166        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1167
1168    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1171            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1172        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1173
1174    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1177            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1178        return this
1179
1180    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1182        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1183
1184        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1185            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1186            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1187        else:
1188            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1189            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1190
1191        if escape:
1192            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1193            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1194        else:
1195            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1196            escape_sql = ""
1197
1198        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1199            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1200
1201        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1202
1203    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1204        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1205        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1206
1207    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1209        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1210        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1211        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1212
1213    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1214        type_value = expression.this
1215
1216        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1217            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1218        else:
1219            type_sql = (
1220                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1221                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1222                else type_value
1223            )
1224
1225        nested = ""
1226        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        values = ""
1228
1229        if interior:
1230            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1231                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1232                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1233                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1234                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1235                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1236            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1237                nested = f" {interior}"
1238            else:
1239                nested = f"({interior})"
1240
1241        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1242        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1243            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1245        ):
1246            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1247
1248        return type_sql
1249
1250    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1251        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1252        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1253        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1254        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1255
1256    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1259        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1260        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1261        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1262        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1263        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1264        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1265        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1266        if self.RETURNING_END:
1267            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1268        else:
1269            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1270        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1271
1272    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1276        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1277        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1278        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1279        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1280        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1281        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1282        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1283        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1284        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1285        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1286
1287    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1288        return self.set_operations(expression)
1289
1290    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1291        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1292
1293    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1294        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1295        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1296        count = expression.args.get("count")
1297        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1298        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1299            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1300        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1301        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1302
1303    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1304        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1305            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1306            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1307            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1308
1309        agg = expression.this
1310        agg_arg = agg.this
1311        cond = expression.expression.this
1312        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1313        return self.sql(agg)
1314
1315    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1316        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1317            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1318            return ""
1319
1320        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1321
1322    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1323        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1324        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1325        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1326        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1327        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1328        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1329        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1330        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1331        if include:
1332            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1333        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1334        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1335        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1336        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1337        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1338        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1339
1340        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1341
1342    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1343        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1344        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1345        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1346        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1347        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1348        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1349        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1350
1351        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1352
1353        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1354        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1355
1356    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1357        text = expression.name
1358        lower = text.lower()
1359        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1360        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1361        if (
1362            expression.quoted
1363            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1364            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1365            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1366        ):
1367            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1368        return text
1369
1370    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1371        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1372        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1373            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1374
1375        return text
1376
1377    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1378        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1379        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1380            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1381        return text
1382
1383    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1384        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1385        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1386        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1387        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1388        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1389
1390    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1391        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1392        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1393
1394    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1395        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1396
1397    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1398        root_properties = []
1399        with_properties = []
1400
1401        for p in expression.expressions:
1402            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1403            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1404                with_properties.append(p)
1405            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1406                root_properties.append(p)
1407
1408        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1409        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1410
1411        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1412            with_props = " " + with_props
1413
1414        return root_props + with_props
1415
1416    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1417        if properties.expressions:
1418            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1419        return ""
1420
1421    def properties(
1422        self,
1423        properties: exp.Properties,
1424        prefix: str = "",
1425        sep: str = ", ",
1426        suffix: str = "",
1427        wrapped: bool = True,
1428    ) -> str:
1429        if properties.expressions:
1430            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1431            if expressions:
1432                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1433                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1434        return ""
1435
1436    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1437        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1438
1439    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1440        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1441        for p in properties.expressions:
1442            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1443            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1444                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1445            else:
1446                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1447
1448        return properties_locs
1449
1450    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1451        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1452            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1453        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1454
1455    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1456        property_cls = expression.__class__
1457        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1458            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1459
1460        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1461        if not property_name:
1462            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1463
1464        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1465
1466    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1467        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1468            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1469            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1470
1471            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1472            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1473                like = f"({like})"
1474
1475            return like
1476
1477        if expression.expressions:
1478            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1479
1480        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1481        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1482
1483    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1484        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1485        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1486        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1487
1488    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1489        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1490        local = expression.args.get("local")
1491        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1492        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1493        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1494        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1495        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1496
1497    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1498        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1500        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1501
1502    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1503        if expression.args.get("default"):
1504            property = "DEFAULT"
1505        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1506            property = "ON"
1507        else:
1508            property = "OFF"
1509        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1510
1511    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1512        if expression.args.get("no"):
1513            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1514        if expression.args.get("default"):
1515            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1516
1517        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1518        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1519
1520    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1521        default = expression.args.get("default")
1522        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1523        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1524        if default or minimum or maximum:
1525            if default:
1526                prop = "DEFAULT"
1527            elif minimum:
1528                prop = "MINIMUM"
1529            else:
1530                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1531            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1532        units = expression.args.get("units")
1533        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1534        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1535
1536    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1537        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1538        always = expression.args.get("always")
1539        default = expression.args.get("default")
1540        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1541        never = expression.args.get("never")
1542
1543        if autotemp is not None:
1544            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1545        elif always:
1546            prop = "ALWAYS"
1547        elif default:
1548            prop = "DEFAULT"
1549        elif manual:
1550            prop = "MANUAL"
1551        elif never:
1552            prop = "NEVER"
1553        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1554
1555    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1556        no = expression.args.get("no")
1557        no = " NO" if no else ""
1558        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1559        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1560        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1561        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1562        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1563
1564    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1566            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1567        if expression.this:
1568            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1570            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1571
1572        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1573        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1574        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1575
1576    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578
1579        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1580        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1581            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1582        else:
1583            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1584
1585        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1586
1587    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1588        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1589        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1590        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1591        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1592        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1593        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1594        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1595
1596    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1597        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1598        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1599        statistics_sql = ""
1600        if statistics is not None:
1601            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1602        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1603
1604    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1606        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1607        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1608        data_consistency = (
1609            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1610        )
1611        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1612        retention_period = (
1613            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1614        )
1615
1616        if this:
1617            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1618        else:
1619            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1620
1621        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1622
1623        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1624
1625    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1626        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1627        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1628
1629        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1630            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1631        else:
1632            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1633
1634        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1635        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1636        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1637        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1638        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1639        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1640        if is_function:
1641            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1642        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1643
1644        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1645        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1646        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1647        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1648        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1649        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1650        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1652
1653        if self.RETURNING_END:
1654            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1655        else:
1656            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1657
1658        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1659        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1660
1661    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1662        return self.set_operations(expression)
1663
1664    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1665        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1666
1667    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1668        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1669
1670    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1672        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1675        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1676
1677    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1678        return expression.name
1679
1680    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1681        return expression.name
1682
1683    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1684        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1685
1686        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1687        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1688
1689        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1690        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1691        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1692
1693        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1694        if expressions:
1695            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1696            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1697
1698        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1699
1700    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1701        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1702
1703    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1704        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1705        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1706        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1707        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1708        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1709        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1710        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1711        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1712        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1713        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1714        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1715        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1716        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1717
1718    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1719        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1720
1721    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1722        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1723        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1724        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1725        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1726
1727    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1730        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1731        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1732
1733    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1734        return ".".join(
1735            self.sql(part)
1736            for part in (
1737                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1738                expression.args.get("db"),
1739                expression.args.get("this"),
1740            )
1741            if part is not None
1742        )
1743
1744    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1745        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1746        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1747        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1748        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1749        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1750        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1751        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1752        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1753        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1754        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1755        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1756        joins = self.indent(
1757            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1758        )
1759        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1760
1761        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1762        if file_format:
1763            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1764            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1765            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1766
1767        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1768        if ordinality:
1769            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1770            alias = ""
1771
1772        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1773        if when:
1774            table = f"{table} {when}"
1775
1776        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1777        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1778
1779        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1780        if rows_from:
1781            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1782
1783        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1784
1785    def tablesample_sql(
1786        self,
1787        expression: exp.TableSample,
1788        sep: str = " AS ",
1789        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1790    ) -> str:
1791        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1792            table = expression.this.copy()
1793            table.set("alias", None)
1794            this = self.sql(table)
1795            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1796        else:
1797            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1798            alias = ""
1799
1800        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1801        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1802        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1803        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1804        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1805        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1806        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1807        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1808        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1809
1810        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1811        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1812            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1813
1814        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1815        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1816            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1817
1818        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1819        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1820            expr = f"({expr})"
1821
1822        return (
1823            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1824        )
1825
1826    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1827        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1828
1829        if expression.this:
1830            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831            if not expressions:
1832                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1833
1834            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1835            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1836            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1837            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1838            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1839
1840        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1841        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1842        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1843
1844        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1845        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1846            field = f"IN ({field})"
1847
1848        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1849        if include_nulls is not None:
1850            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1851        else:
1852            nulls = ""
1853
1854        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1855        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1856        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1857
1858    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1859        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1860        kind = expression.text("kind")
1861        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1862        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1863
1864    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1865        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1866
1867    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1870        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1871        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1872        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1873        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1874        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1875        if self.RETURNING_END:
1876            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1877        else:
1878            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1879        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1880        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1881
1882    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1883        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1884
1885        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1886        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1887            args = self.expressions(expression)
1888            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1889            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1890            values = (
1891                f"({values})"
1892                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1893                else values
1894            )
1895            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1896
1897        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1898        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1899        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1900
1901        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1902
1903        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1904            row = tup.expressions
1905
1906            if i == 0 and column_names:
1907                row = [
1908                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1909                ]
1910
1911            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1912
1913        if self.pretty:
1914            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1915            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1916            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1917            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1918            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1919
1920        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1921        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1922        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1923
1924    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1925        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1926
1927    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1928        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1929        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1930        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1931
1932    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1933        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1934
1935    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1936        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1937        if group_by_all is True:
1938            modifier = " ALL"
1939        elif group_by_all is False:
1940            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1941        else:
1942            modifier = ""
1943
1944        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1945
1946        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1947        grouping_sets = (
1948            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1949        )
1950
1951        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1952        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1953            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1954        else:
1955            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1956            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1957
1958        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1959        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1960            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1961        else:
1962            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1963            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1964
1965        groupings = csv(
1966            grouping_sets,
1967            cube_sql,
1968            rollup_sql,
1969            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1970            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1971        )
1972
1973        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1974            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1975
1976        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1977
1978    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1979        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1980        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1981
1982    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1983        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1984        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1985        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1986        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1987        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1988        return start + connect
1989
1990    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1991        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1992
1993    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1994        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1995            side = None
1996        else:
1997            side = expression.side
1998
1999        op_sql = " ".join(
2000            op
2001            for op in (
2002                expression.method,
2003                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2004                side,
2005                expression.kind,
2006                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2007            )
2008            if op
2009        )
2010        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2011        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2012        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2013        using = expression.args.get("using")
2014
2015        if not on_sql and using:
2016            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2017
2018        this = expression.this
2019        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2020
2021        if on_sql:
2022            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2023            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2024            if using:
2025                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2026            else:
2027                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2028        elif not op_sql:
2029            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2030                return f" {this_sql}"
2031
2032            return f", {this_sql}"
2033
2034        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2035            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2036
2037        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2038
2039    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2040        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2041        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2042        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2043
2044    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2045        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2046
2047        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2048        if cross_apply is True:
2049            op = "INNER JOIN "
2050        elif cross_apply is False:
2051            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2052        else:
2053            op = ""
2054
2055        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2056
2057    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059
2060        if expression.args.get("view"):
2061            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2062            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2063            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2064            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2065            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2066            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2067
2068        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2069        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2070        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2071
2072    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074
2075        args = [
2076            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2077            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2078            if e
2079        ]
2080
2081        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2082        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2084        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2085
2086        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2087
2088    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090        value = expression.expression
2091        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2094        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2095
2096    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2097        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2098        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2100        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2101        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2102        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2103        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2104        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2105
2106    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2107        expressions = (
2108            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2109        )
2110        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2111        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2112
2113    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2114        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115
2116    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2117        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2118            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2119            return ""
2120
2121        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2122        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2123        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2124        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2125
2126        if wait is not None:
2127            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2128                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2129            else:
2130                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2131
2132        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2133
2134    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2135        text = expression.this or ""
2136        if expression.is_string:
2137            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2138        return text
2139
2140    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2141        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2142            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2143            text = "".join(
2144                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2145            )
2146
2147        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2148            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2149        )
2150
2151    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2152        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2153        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2154        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2155        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2156        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2157        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2158        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2159        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2160        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2161        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2162        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2163
2164    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2165        return "NULL"
2166
2167    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2168        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2169
2170    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2173        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2174        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2175        interpolated_values = [
2176            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2177            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2178        ]
2179        interpolate = (
2180            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2181        )
2182        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2183
2184    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2185        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2186        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2187        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2188        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2189        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2190        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2191        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2192
2193    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2194        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2195
2196    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2197        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2198
2199    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2200        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2201
2202    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2203        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2204        asc = not desc
2205
2206        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2207        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2208        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2209        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2210        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2211
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213
2214        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2215        nulls_sort_change = ""
2216        if nulls_first and (
2217            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2218        ):
2219            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2220        elif (
2221            nulls_last
2222            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2223            and not nulls_are_last
2224        ):
2225            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2226
2227        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2228        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2229            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2230            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2231                self.unsupported(
2232                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2233                )
2234                nulls_sort_change = ""
2235            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2236                if expression.this.is_int:
2237                    self.unsupported(
2238                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2239                    )
2240                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2241                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2242                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2243                nulls_sort_change = ""
2244
2245        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2246        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2247
2248        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2249
2250    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2251        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2252        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2253
2254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2255
2256        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2257
2258    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2259        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2260        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2261        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2262        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2263        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2264        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2265        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2266        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2267        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2268        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2269        definition_sqls = [
2270            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2271            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2272        ]
2273        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2274        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2275        body = "".join(
2276            (
2277                partition,
2278                order,
2279                measures,
2280                rows,
2281                after,
2282                pattern,
2283                define,
2284            )
2285        )
2286        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2287        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2288        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2289
2290    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2291        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2292
2293        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2294            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2295        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2296            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2297
2298        return csv(
2299            *sqls,
2300            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2301            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2302            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2303            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2304            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2305            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2306            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2307            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2308            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2309            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2310            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2311            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2312            self.options_modifier(expression),
2313            sep="",
2314        )
2315
2316    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2317        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2318        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2319
2320    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2321        return ""
2322
2323    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2324        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2325    ) -> t.List[str]:
2326        return [
2327            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2328            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2329        ]
2330
2331    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2332        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2333        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2334        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2335
2336    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2337        into = expression.args.get("into")
2338        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2339            into.pop()
2340
2341        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2342        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2343        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2344        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2345
2346        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2347        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2348            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2349            limit.pop()
2350        else:
2351            top = ""
2352
2353        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2354
2355        if kind:
2356            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2357                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2358            else:
2359                if kind == "STRUCT":
2360                    expressions = self.expressions(
2361                        sqls=[
2362                            self.sql(
2363                                exp.Struct(
2364                                    expressions=[
2365                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2366                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2367                                        else e
2368                                        for e in expression.expressions
2369                                    ]
2370                                )
2371                            )
2372                        ]
2373                    )
2374                kind = ""
2375
2376        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2377        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2378        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2379        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2380        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2381            expression,
2382            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2383            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2384            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2385        )
2386
2387        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2388
2389        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2390            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2391                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2392            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2393                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2394            else:
2395                table_kind = ""
2396            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2397
2398        return sql
2399
2400    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2402        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2403        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2404
2405    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2406        if expression.expressions:
2407            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2408        return ""
2409
2410    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2411        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2412        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2413        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2414        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2415        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2416        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2417        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2418
2419    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2421        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2422
2423    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        kind = expression.text("kind")
2426        if kind:
2427            kind = f"{kind}."
2428        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2429
2430    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2431        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2432
2433    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2434        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2435        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2436        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2437        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2438        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2439
2440    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2441        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2442        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2443
2444    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2445        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2446            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2447            order = expression.args.get("order")
2448
2449            if limit or order:
2450                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2451
2452                if limit:
2453                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2454                if order:
2455                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2456                return self.sql(select)
2457
2458        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2459        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2460
2461        while stack:
2462            node = stack.pop()
2463
2464            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2465                stack.append(node.expression)
2466                stack.append(
2467                    self.maybe_comment(
2468                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2469                        comments=node.comments,
2470                        separated=True,
2471                    )
2472                )
2473                stack.append(node.this)
2474            else:
2475                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2476
2477        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2478        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2479        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2480
2481    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2482        return self.set_operations(expression)
2483
2484    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2485        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2486        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2487        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2488        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2489
2490    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2491        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2492
2493        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2494        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2495
2496        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2497            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2498                alias.append("columns", offset)
2499
2500        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2501            columns = alias.columns
2502            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2503        else:
2504            alias = self.sql(alias)
2505
2506        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2507        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2508            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2509        else:
2510            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2511                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2512            elif offset:
2513                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2514            else:
2515                suffix = alias
2516
2517        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2518
2519    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2520        return ""
2521
2522    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2523        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2524        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2525
2526    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2529        order = expression.args.get("order")
2530        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2531        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2532        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2533        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2534
2535        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2536
2537        first = expression.args.get("first")
2538        if first is None:
2539            first = ""
2540        else:
2541            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2542
2543        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2544            return f"{this} {alias}"
2545
2546        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2547        return f"{this} ({args})"
2548
2549    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2550        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2551        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2552
2553    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2554        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2555        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2556        end = (
2557            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2558            or "CURRENT ROW"
2559        )
2560        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2561
2562    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2564        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2565        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2566
2567    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2569        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2570        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2571        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2572
2573    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2574        return apply_index_offset(
2575            expression.this,
2576            expression.expressions,
2577            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2578        )
2579
2580    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2581        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2582        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2583        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2584
2585    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2586        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2587
2588    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2591            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2592                this = self.wrap(this)
2593            return f"ANY{this}"
2594        return f"ANY {this}"
2595
2596    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2597        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2598
2599    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2602
2603        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2604            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2605            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2606
2607        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2608
2609        if default:
2610            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2611
2612        statements.append("END")
2613
2614        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2615            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2616
2617        return " ".join(statements)
2618
2619    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2622        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2623
2624    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2625        order = expression.args.get("order")
2626        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2627        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2628
2629    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2630        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2631        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2632        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2633
2634    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2635        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2636
2637        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2638            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2639        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2640            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2641        else:
2642            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2643
2644    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2645        args = expression.expressions
2646        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2647            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2648
2649        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2650            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2651
2652        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2653            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2654
2655        return args
2656
2657    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2658        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2659
2660        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2661        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2662            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2663
2664        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2665
2666    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2667        return self.func(
2668            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2669        )
2670
2671    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2672        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2673        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2674
2675    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2676        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2677        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2678        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2679        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2680        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2681        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2682        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2683        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2684
2685    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2687        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2688        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2689        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2690
2691    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2692        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2693
2694    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2695        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2696        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2697        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2698
2699    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2700        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2701
2702    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2703        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2704        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2705            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2706
2707        return path
2708
2709    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2710        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2711            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2712            if not callable(transform):
2713                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2714                return ""
2715
2716            return transform(self, expression)
2717
2718        if isinstance(expression, int):
2719            return str(expression)
2720
2721        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2722            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2723            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2724        else:
2725            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2726            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2727
2728        return escaped
2729
2730    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2731        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2732
2733    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2734        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2735        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2736
2737        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2738        if unique_keys is not None:
2739            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2740        else:
2741            unique_keys = ""
2742
2743        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2744        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2745        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2746        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2747
2748        return self.func(
2749            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2750            *expression.expressions,
2751            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2752        )
2753
2754    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2755        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2756
2757    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2758        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2759        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2760        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2761        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2762        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2763        return self.func(
2764            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2765        )
2766
2767    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2770        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2771        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2772        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2773        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2774        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2775        return self.func(
2776            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2777            this,
2778            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2779        )
2780
2781    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2782        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2783        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2784        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2785
2786        if nested_schema:
2787            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2788
2789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2791        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2792        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2793
2794    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2795        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2796
2797    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2800        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2801        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2802        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2803        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2804        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2805        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2806        return self.func(
2807            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2808        )
2809
2810    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2813        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2814        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2815        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2816        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2817
2818    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2820        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2821        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2822        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2823        with_ = (
2824            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2825            if expressions
2826            else ""
2827        )
2828        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2829
2830    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2831        query = expression.args.get("query")
2832        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2833        field = expression.args.get("field")
2834        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2835
2836        if query:
2837            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2838        elif unnest:
2839            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2840        elif field:
2841            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2842        else:
2843            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2844
2845        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2846
2847    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2848        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2849
2850    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2851        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2852        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2853            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2854        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2855
2856        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2857            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2858            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2859
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        if this:
2862            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2863            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2864
2865        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2866
2867    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2868        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2869
2870    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2873        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2874        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2875        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2876        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2877
2878    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2879        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2880
2881    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2882        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2883        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2884
2885    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2886        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2887        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2889        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2890
2891    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2892        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2893
2894    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2895        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2896        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2898
2899    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2900        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2901        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2902
2903        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2904            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2905        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2906            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2907
2908        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2909
2910    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2912
2913    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2916        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2917
2918    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2921        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2922
2923    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2926        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2927
2928    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2929        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2930
2931    def and_sql(
2932        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2933    ) -> str:
2934        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2935
2936    def or_sql(
2937        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2938    ) -> str:
2939        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2940
2941    def xor_sql(
2942        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2943    ) -> str:
2944        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2945
2946    def connector_sql(
2947        self,
2948        expression: exp.Connector,
2949        op: str,
2950        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2951    ) -> str:
2952        if stack is not None:
2953            if expression.expressions:
2954                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2955            else:
2956                stack.append(expression.right)
2957                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2958                    for comment in expression.comments:
2959                        if comment:
2960                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2961                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2962            return op
2963
2964        stack = [expression]
2965        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2966        ops = set()
2967
2968        while stack:
2969            node = stack.pop()
2970            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2971                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2972            else:
2973                sql = self.sql(node)
2974                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2975                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2976                else:
2977                    sqls.append(sql)
2978
2979        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2980        return sep.join(sqls)
2981
2982    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2983        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2984
2985    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2986        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2987
2988    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2989        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2990
2991    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2992        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2993
2994    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2995        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2996
2997    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2999
3000    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3001        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3002        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3003        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3004        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3005        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3006        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3007        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3008
3009    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3010        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3012
3013    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3014        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3015            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3016        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3017
3018    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3020
3021    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3024        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3025        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3026        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3027        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3028
3029    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3032        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3033        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3034        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3035        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3036        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3037        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3038        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3039
3040    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3041        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3042        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3043        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3044        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3045
3046        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3047            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3048
3049        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3050
3051    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3052        return "BEGIN"
3053
3054    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3055        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3056        if chain is not None:
3057            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3058
3059        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3060
3061    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3062        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3063        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3064        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3065
3066    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068
3069        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3070        if dtype:
3071            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3072            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3073            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3074            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3075            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3076
3077        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3078        if default:
3079            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3080
3081        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3082        if comment:
3083            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3084
3085        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3086        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3087
3088        if not drop and not allow_null:
3089            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3090
3091        if allow_null is not None:
3092            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3093            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3094
3095        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3096
3097    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3100            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3101        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3102
3103    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3104        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3106        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3107        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3108        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3109
3110    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3111        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3112            # Remove db from tables
3113            expression = expression.transform(
3114                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3115            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3117        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3118
3119    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3120        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3121        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3122        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3123        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3124
3125    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3126        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3127        return f"SET {exprs}"
3128
3129    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3130        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3131
3132        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3133            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3134        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3135            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3136        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3137            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3138        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3139            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3140        else:
3141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3142
3143        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3144        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3145        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3146        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3147        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3148        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3149        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3150        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3151
3152    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3153        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3154            return self.expressions(
3155                expression,
3156                key="actions",
3157                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3158                skip_first=True,
3159            )
3160        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3161
3162    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3163        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3164        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3165        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3166
3167    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3168        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3169
3170    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3171        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3172
3173        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3174            case = exp.case()
3175            for arg in expression.expressions:
3176                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3177            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3178
3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3180
3181        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3182        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3183        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3184
3185    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3186        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3187
3188    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3189        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3190
3191    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3192        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3193        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3194        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3195        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3196
3197    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3198        return self.sql(
3199            exp.Cast(
3200                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3201                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3202            )
3203        )
3204
3205    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3206        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3207            return self.func(
3208                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3209            )
3210        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3211
3212    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3213        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3214
3215        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3216            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3217
3218        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3219            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3220                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3221
3222        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3223            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3224                return self.sql(
3225                    exp.cast(
3226                        l / r,
3227                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3228                    )
3229                )
3230
3231        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3232
3233    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3235
3236    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3238
3239    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3240        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3241
3242    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3244
3245    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3247
3248    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3250
3251    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3253
3254    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3256
3257    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3259
3260    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3262
3263    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3265
3266    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3267        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3268            return self.sql(
3269                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3270            )
3271        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3272
3273    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3275
3276    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3278
3279    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3281
3282    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3284
3285    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3287
3288    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3290
3291    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3293
3294    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3296
3297    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3299
3300    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3302
3303    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3305
3306    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3308
3309    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3310        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3311
3312    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3313        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3314            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3315            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3316
3317        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3318
3319    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3320        this = expression.this
3321        expr = expression.expression
3322
3323        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3324            this, expr = expr, this
3325        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3326            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3327                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3328
3329            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3330
3331        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3332
3333    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3334        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3335        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3337        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3338        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3339
3340    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3341        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3342        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3343
3344    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3345        args = []
3346
3347        for key in expression.arg_types:
3348            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3349
3350            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3351                for value in arg_value:
3352                    args.append(value)
3353            elif arg_value is not None:
3354                args.append(arg_value)
3355
3356        if self.normalize_functions:
3357            name = expression.sql_name()
3358        else:
3359            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3360
3361        return self.func(name, *args)
3362
3363    def func(
3364        self,
3365        name: str,
3366        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3367        prefix: str = "(",
3368        suffix: str = ")",
3369    ) -> str:
3370        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3371
3372    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3373        arg_sqls = tuple(
3374            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3375        )
3376        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3377            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3378        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3379
3380    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3381        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3382
3383    def format_time(
3384        self,
3385        expression: exp.Expression,
3386        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3387        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3388    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3389        return format_time(
3390            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3391            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3392            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3393        )
3394
3395    def expressions(
3396        self,
3397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3398        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3399        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3400        flat: bool = False,
3401        indent: bool = True,
3402        skip_first: bool = False,
3403        skip_last: bool = False,
3404        sep: str = ", ",
3405        prefix: str = "",
3406        dynamic: bool = False,
3407        new_line: bool = False,
3408    ) -> str:
3409        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3410
3411        if not expressions:
3412            return ""
3413
3414        if flat:
3415            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3416
3417        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3418        result_sqls = []
3419
3420        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3421            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3422            if not sql:
3423                continue
3424
3425            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3426
3427            if self.pretty:
3428                if self.leading_comma:
3429                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3430                else:
3431                    result_sqls.append(
3432                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3433                    )
3434            else:
3435                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3436
3437        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3438            if new_line:
3439                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3440                result_sqls.append("")
3441            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3442        else:
3443            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3444        return (
3445            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3446            if indent
3447            else result_sql
3448        )
3449
3450    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3451        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3452        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3453        if flat:
3454            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3455        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3456
3457    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3458        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3459        if not property_name:
3460            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3461        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3462
3463    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3464        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3465
3466    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3467        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3468
3469    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3471        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3472        expressions = (
3473            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3474        )
3475        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3476
3477    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3480        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3481
3482    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3483        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3484
3485    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3486        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3487        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3488        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3489        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3490
3491        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3492        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3493            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3494            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3495            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3496            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3497        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3498            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3499                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3500            else:
3501                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3502        else:
3503            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3504        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3505
3506    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3507        table = expression.this
3508        table_alias = ""
3509
3510        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3511        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3512            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3513            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3514
3515        this = self.sql(table)
3516        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3517        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3519        sep = self.sep()
3520
3521        return self.prepend_ctes(
3522            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3523        )
3524
3525    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3526        if expression.args.get("format"):
3527            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3528
3529        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3530
3531    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3532        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3533            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3534            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3535
3536        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3537        if not fmt:
3538            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3539            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3540
3541        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3542
3543    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3545        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3546        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3547        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3548        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3549
3550    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3552        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3553        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3554        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3555
3556    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3557        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3558
3559    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3560        return ""
3561
3562    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3563        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3564        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3565        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3566        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3567        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3568
3569    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3571        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3572
3573        if having:
3574            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3575
3576        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3577
3578    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3579        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3580        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3581        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3582        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3583        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3584        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3585        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3586        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3587        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3588        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3589        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3590        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3591        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3592
3593    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3594        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3595        if key_block_size:
3596            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3597
3598        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3599        if using:
3600            return f"USING {using}"
3601
3602        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3603        if parser:
3604            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3605
3606        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3607        if comment:
3608            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3609
3610        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3611        if visible is not None:
3612            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3613
3614        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3615        if engine_attr:
3616            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3617
3618        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3619        if secondary_engine_attr:
3620            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3621
3622        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3623        return ""
3624
3625    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3626        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3627        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3628
3629    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3631        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3633        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3634        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3635        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3636        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3637        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3638        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3639        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3640        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3641
3642    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3643        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3644            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3645
3646        case = exp.Case().when(
3647            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3648            expression.args["true"],
3649            copy=False,
3650        )
3651        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3652        if else_cond:
3653            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3654
3655        return self.sql(case)
3656
3657    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3659        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3660        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3661        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3662        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3663        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3664
3665    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3667
3668    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3669        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3670
3671    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3672        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3673        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3674        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3675        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3676        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3677        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3678
3679    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3681        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3682        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3683
3684    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3686        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3687        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3688
3689    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3690        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3691
3692    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3693        arg = expression.this
3694        if not arg.type:
3695            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3696
3697            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3698
3699        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3700            return self.sql(arg)
3701
3702        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3703        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3704
3705    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3706        this = expression.this
3707        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3708            return self.sql(this)
3709
3710        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3711
3712    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3713        this = expression.this
3714        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3715            return self.sql(this)
3716
3717        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3718
3719    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3720        this = expression.this
3721        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3722
3723        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3724            return self.sql(
3725                exp.cast(
3726                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3727                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3728                )
3729            )
3730
3731        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3732            return self.sql(this)
3733
3734        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3735
3736    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3737        return self.sql(
3738            exp.func(
3739                "DATEDIFF",
3740                expression.this,
3741                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3742                "day",
3743            )
3744        )
3745
3746    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3747        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3748            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3749
3750        unit = expression.text("unit")
3751        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3752            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3753
3754        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3755
3756    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3757        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3758
3759        return self.func(
3760            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3761        )
3762
3763    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3764        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3765            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3766            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3767            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3768            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3769
3770        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3771
3772        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3773        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3774            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3775
3776        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3777
3778    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3779        expression.set(
3780            "expressions",
3781            [
3782                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3783                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3784                else e
3785                for e in expression.expressions
3786            ],
3787        )
3788
3789        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3790
3791    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3792        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3793        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3794
3795        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3796
3797    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3798        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3799        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3800
3801        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3802
3803        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3804        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3805
3806        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3807        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3808
3809        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3810        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3811
3812        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3813        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3814
3815        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3816
3817    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3818    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3819    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3820        to = expression.this
3821        value = expression.expression
3822        style = expression.args.get("style")
3823        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3824        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3825
3826        if not to or not value:
3827            return ""
3828
3829        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3830        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3831            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3832
3833        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3834        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3835
3836        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3837        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3838            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3839
3840            style_value = style.name
3841            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3842            if not converted_style:
3843                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3844
3845            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3846
3847            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3848                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3849            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3850                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3851            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3852                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3853            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3854                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3855
3856        if not transformed:
3857            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3858
3859        return self.sql(transformed)
3860
3861    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3862        this = expression.this
3863        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3864            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3865            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3866
3867        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3868            return f".{this}"
3869
3870        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3871        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3872
3873    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3874        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3875        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3876
3877    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3878        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3879            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3880
3881            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3882
3883        return expression
3884
3885    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3886        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3887            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3888            mods = sorted(
3889                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3890                key=lambda x: 0
3891                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3892                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3893            )
3894
3895            if mods:
3896                mod = mods[0]
3897                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3898                this.meta["inline"] = True
3899                mod.this.replace(this)
3900                return self.sql(expression.this)
3901
3902            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3903
3904            if agg_func:
3905                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3906
3907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3908
3909    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3910        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3911        if self.pretty:
3912            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3913        return string
3914
3915    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3916        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3917
3918        if expression.expressions:
3919            upper = option.upper()
3920
3921            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3922            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3923
3924            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3925            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3926            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3927            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3928
3929        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3930
3931        if not value:
3932            return option
3933
3934        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3935
3936        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3937
3938    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3939        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3940        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3941            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3942            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3943            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3944        else:
3945            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3946            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3947            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3948
3949        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3950        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3951
3952        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3953        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3954
3955        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3956        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3957
3958        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3959        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3960
3961        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3962
3963    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3965        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3966
3967        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3968        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3969        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3970        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3971
3972        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3973        params = self.expressions(
3974            expression,
3975            key="params",
3976            sep=sep,
3977            new_line=True,
3978            skip_last=True,
3979            skip_first=True,
3980            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3981        )
3982
3983        if params:
3984            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3985                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3986            elif not self.pretty:
3987                params = f" {params}"
3988
3989        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3990
3991    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3992        return ""
3993
3994    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3995        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3996        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3997        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3998        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3999        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4000
4001        if filter_col or retention_period:
4002            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4003
4004        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4005
4006    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4007        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4008    ) -> str:
4009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4010        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4011        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4012        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4013
4014    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4016        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4017        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4018
4019    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4020        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4021
4022    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4024        expr = expression.expression
4025
4026        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4027            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4028            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4029        else:
4030            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4031
4032        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4033
4034    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4035        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4036            return self.sql(expression.this)
4037
4038        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4039
4040    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4041        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4042        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4043
4044        if lower and upper:
4045            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4046        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4047
4048    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4049        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4050        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4051        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4052        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4053        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4054        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4055
4056        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4057
4058    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4059        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4060
4061        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4062        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4063            fill_pattern = "' '"
4064
4065        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4066
4067    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4068        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4069        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4070
4071    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4072        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4073
4074        parent = expression.parent
4075        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4076            parent = parent.parent
4077
4078        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4079            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4080
4081        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4082            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4083
4084        return self.sql(generate_series)
4085
4086    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4087        exprs = expression.expressions
4088        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4089            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4090        else:
4091            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4092
4093        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4094
4095    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4096        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4097            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4098
4099        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4100        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4101        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4102
4103        if source_tz and timestamp:
4104            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4105                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4106            )
4107
4108        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4109
4110        return self.sql(expr)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  97        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  99        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 100        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 101        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 389    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 390
 391    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 392        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 402    }
 403
 404    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 405        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 406        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 407        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 408        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 409        "DAYS": "DAY",
 410        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 411        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 412        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 413        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 414    }
 415
 416    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 417        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 418        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 419        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 420        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 421            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 422            if e.args.get("windows")
 423            else ""
 424        ),
 425        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 426    }
 427
 428    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 429
 430    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 431
 432    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 433    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 434
 435    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 436        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 469        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 475        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 476        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 481        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 484        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 502        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 505        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 517        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520    }
 521
 522    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 523    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 524
 525    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 526    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 527        exp.Command,
 528        exp.Create,
 529        exp.Delete,
 530        exp.Drop,
 531        exp.From,
 532        exp.Insert,
 533        exp.Join,
 534        exp.Select,
 535        exp.SetOperation,
 536        exp.Update,
 537        exp.Where,
 538        exp.With,
 539    )
 540
 541    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 542    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 543        exp.Binary,
 544        exp.SetOperation,
 545    )
 546
 547    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 548    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 549        exp.Column,
 550        exp.Literal,
 551        exp.Neg,
 552        exp.Paren,
 553    )
 554
 555    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 556        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 557        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 558        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 560    }
 561
 562    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 563    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 564
 565    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 566
 567    __slots__ = (
 568        "pretty",
 569        "identify",
 570        "normalize",
 571        "pad",
 572        "_indent",
 573        "normalize_functions",
 574        "unsupported_level",
 575        "max_unsupported",
 576        "leading_comma",
 577        "max_text_width",
 578        "comments",
 579        "dialect",
 580        "unsupported_messages",
 581        "_escaped_quote_end",
 582        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 583        "_next_name",
 584    )
 585
 586    def __init__(
 587        self,
 588        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 589        identify: str | bool = False,
 590        normalize: bool = False,
 591        pad: int = 2,
 592        indent: int = 2,
 593        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 594        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 595        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 596        leading_comma: bool = False,
 597        max_text_width: int = 80,
 598        comments: bool = True,
 599        dialect: DialectType = None,
 600    ):
 601        import sqlglot
 602        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 603
 604        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 605        self.identify = identify
 606        self.normalize = normalize
 607        self.pad = pad
 608        self._indent = indent
 609        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 610        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 611        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 612        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 613        self.comments = comments
 614        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 615
 616        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 617        self.normalize_functions = (
 618            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 619        )
 620
 621        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 622        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 623            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 624        )
 625        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 627        )
 628
 629        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 630
 631    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 632        """
 633        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 634
 635        Args:
 636            expression: The syntax tree.
 637            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 638                it is safer to copy.
 639
 640        Returns:
 641            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 642        """
 643        if copy:
 644            expression = expression.copy()
 645
 646        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 647
 648        self.unsupported_messages = []
 649        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 650
 651        if self.pretty:
 652            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 653
 654        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 655            return sql
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 658            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 659                logger.warning(msg)
 660        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 661            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 662
 663        return sql
 664
 665    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 666        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 667        if (
 668            not expression.parent
 669            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 670            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 671        ):
 672            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 673
 674            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 675
 676        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 677            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 678
 679            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 680
 681        return expression
 682
 683    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 684        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 685            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 686        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 687
 688    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 689        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 690
 691    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 693
 694    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 695        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 696        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 697        return comment
 698
 699    def maybe_comment(
 700        self,
 701        sql: str,
 702        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 703        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 704        separated: bool = False,
 705    ) -> str:
 706        comments = (
 707            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 708            if self.comments
 709            else None
 710        )
 711
 712        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 713            return sql
 714
 715        comments_sql = " ".join(
 716            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 717        )
 718
 719        if not comments_sql:
 720            return sql
 721
 722        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 723
 724        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 725            return (
 726                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 727                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 728                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 729            )
 730
 731        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 732
 733    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 734        this_sql = (
 735            self.sql(expression)
 736            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 737            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 738        )
 739        if not this_sql:
 740            return "()"
 741
 742        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 743        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 744
 745    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 746        original = self.identify
 747        self.identify = False
 748        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 749        self.identify = original
 750        return result
 751
 752    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 753        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 754            return name.upper()
 755        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 756            return name.lower()
 757        return name
 758
 759    def indent(
 760        self,
 761        sql: str,
 762        level: int = 0,
 763        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 764        skip_first: bool = False,
 765        skip_last: bool = False,
 766    ) -> str:
 767        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 768            return sql
 769
 770        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 771        lines = sql.split("\n")
 772
 773        return "\n".join(
 774            (
 775                line
 776                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 777                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 778            )
 779            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 780        )
 781
 782    def sql(
 783        self,
 784        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 785        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 786        comment: bool = True,
 787    ) -> str:
 788        if not expression:
 789            return ""
 790
 791        if isinstance(expression, str):
 792            return expression
 793
 794        if key:
 795            value = expression.args.get(key)
 796            if value:
 797                return self.sql(value)
 798            return ""
 799
 800        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 801
 802        if callable(transform):
 803            sql = transform(self, expression)
 804        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 805            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 806
 807            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 808                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 810                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 812                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 813            else:
 814                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 815        else:
 816            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 817
 818        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 819
 820    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 821        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 823        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 824
 825    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 826        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 827        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        options = expression.args.get("options")
 829        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 830        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 831        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 832        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 834
 835    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 836        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 837            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 838        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 839        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 840
 841    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 842        return ".".join(
 843            self.sql(part)
 844            for part in (
 845                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 846                expression.args.get("db"),
 847                expression.args.get("table"),
 848                expression.args.get("this"),
 849            )
 850            if part
 851        )
 852
 853    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 854        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 855
 856        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 857            join_mark = ""
 858            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 859
 860        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 861
 862    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 865        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 866        return f"{position}{this}"
 867
 868    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 869        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 871        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 872        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 873        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 874        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 875        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 876        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 877
 878        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 879            kind = ""
 880
 881        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 882
 883    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 886        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 887
 888    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 890        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 891            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 892        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 893            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 894        else:
 895            persisted = ""
 896        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 897
 898    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 899        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 900
 901    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 903            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 904        else:
 905            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906
 907        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 908
 909    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 910        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 911    ) -> str:
 912        this = ""
 913        if expression.this is not None:
 914            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 915            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 916
 917        start = expression.args.get("start")
 918        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 919        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 920        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 921        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 922        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 923        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 924        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 925        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 926        cycle_sql = ""
 927
 928        if cycle is not None:
 929            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 930            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 931
 932        sequence_opts = ""
 933        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 934            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 935            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 936
 937        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 938        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 939
 940        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 941
 942    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 943        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 944    ) -> str:
 945        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 946        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 947        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 948
 949    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 950        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 951    ) -> str:
 952        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 953
 954    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 956
 957    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 959
 960    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 962        if desc is not None:
 963            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 964        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 965
 966    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 968        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 969        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 970        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 971        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 972        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 973        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 974        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 975
 976    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 977        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 978
 979    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 981        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 982        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 983
 984        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 985
 986        properties_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 988            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 989        ):
 990            properties_sql = self.sql(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=[
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 994                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 995                    ]
 996                )
 997            )
 998
 999            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1000                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1001            elif not self.pretty:
1002                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1003                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1004
1005        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1006        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1007
1008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1009        if expression_sql:
1010            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1011
1012            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1013                postalias_props_sql = ""
1014                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1015                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                        exp.Properties(
1017                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1018                        ),
1019                        wrapped=False,
1020                    )
1021                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1022                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1023
1024        postindex_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1026            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1028                wrapped=False,
1029                prefix=" ",
1030            )
1031
1032        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1033        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1034        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1035
1036        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1037        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1038        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1039
1040        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1041        if clustered is None:
1042            clustered_sql = ""
1043        elif clustered:
1044            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045        else:
1046            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1047
1048        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1050            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1051                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1052                sep=" ",
1053                prefix=" ",
1054                wrapped=False,
1055            )
1056
1057        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1058
1059        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1060        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1061            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1062                exp.Properties(
1063                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1064                ),
1065                sep=" ",
1066                prefix=" ",
1067                wrapped=False,
1068            )
1069
1070        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1071        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1072        no_schema_binding = (
1073            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1074        )
1075
1076        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1077        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1078
1079        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1080        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1081
1082    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1083        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1084        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1085        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1086        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1087        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1088        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1089        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1090        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1091        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1092        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1093
1094        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1095        if cache is None:
1096            cache_str = ""
1097        elif cache is True:
1098            cache_str = " CACHE"
1099        else:
1100            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1101
1102        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1103        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1104
1105        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1106
1107    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1110        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1111        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1112
1113    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1114        style = expression.args.get("style")
1115        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1116        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1117
1118    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1119        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1120        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1121
1122    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1123        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1124        if with_:
1125            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1126        return sql
1127
1128    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1129        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1130        recursive = (
1131            "RECURSIVE "
1132            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1133            else ""
1134        )
1135
1136        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1137
1138    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1139        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1140
1141        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1142        if materialized is False:
1143            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1144        elif materialized:
1145            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1146
1147        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1148
1149    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1150        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1152        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1153
1154        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1155            columns = ""
1156            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1157
1158        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1159            alias = self._next_name()
1160
1161        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1162
1163    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1166            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1167        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1168
1169    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1174
1175    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1179        return this
1180
1181    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1184
1185        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1186            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1187            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1188        else:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1191
1192        if escape:
1193            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1194            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1195        else:
1196            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1197            escape_sql = ""
1198
1199        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1200            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1201
1202        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1203
1204    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1205        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1206        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1207
1208    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1211        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1212        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1213
1214    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1215        type_value = expression.this
1216
1217        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1218            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1219        else:
1220            type_sql = (
1221                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1222                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1223                else type_value
1224            )
1225
1226        nested = ""
1227        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1228        values = ""
1229
1230        if interior:
1231            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1232                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1233                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1234                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1235                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1236                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1237            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1238                nested = f" {interior}"
1239            else:
1240                nested = f"({interior})"
1241
1242        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1243        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1245            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1246        ):
1247            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1248
1249        return type_sql
1250
1251    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1252        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1253        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1254        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1255        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1256
1257    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1263        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1264        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1265        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1266        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1267        if self.RETURNING_END:
1268            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1269        else:
1270            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1271        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1272
1273    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1276        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1277        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1278        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1279        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1280        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1283        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1284        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1285        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1286        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1287
1288    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1289        return self.set_operations(expression)
1290
1291    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1292        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1293
1294    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1295        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1296        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1297        count = expression.args.get("count")
1298        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1299        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1300            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1301        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1302        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1303
1304    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1305        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1306            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1308            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1309
1310        agg = expression.this
1311        agg_arg = agg.this
1312        cond = expression.expression.this
1313        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1314        return self.sql(agg)
1315
1316    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1317        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1318            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1319            return ""
1320
1321        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1322
1323    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1327        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1328        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1329        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1331        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1332        if include:
1333            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1334        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1335        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1336        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1337        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1338        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1340
1341        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1342
1343    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1344        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1345        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1346        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1347        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1349        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1350        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1351
1352        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1353
1354        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1355        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1356
1357    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1358        text = expression.name
1359        lower = text.lower()
1360        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1361        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1362        if (
1363            expression.quoted
1364            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1365            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1366            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1367        ):
1368            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1369        return text
1370
1371    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1372        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1373        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1374            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1375
1376        return text
1377
1378    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1379        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1380        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1381            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1382        return text
1383
1384    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1385        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1386        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1387        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1388        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1389        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1390
1391    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1392        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1393        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1394
1395    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1396        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1397
1398    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        root_properties = []
1400        with_properties = []
1401
1402        for p in expression.expressions:
1403            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1404            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1405                with_properties.append(p)
1406            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1407                root_properties.append(p)
1408
1409        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1410        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1411
1412        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1413            with_props = " " + with_props
1414
1415        return root_props + with_props
1416
1417    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1418        if properties.expressions:
1419            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1420        return ""
1421
1422    def properties(
1423        self,
1424        properties: exp.Properties,
1425        prefix: str = "",
1426        sep: str = ", ",
1427        suffix: str = "",
1428        wrapped: bool = True,
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if properties.expressions:
1431            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1432            if expressions:
1433                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1434                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1435        return ""
1436
1437    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1438        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1439
1440    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1441        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1442        for p in properties.expressions:
1443            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1444            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1445                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1446            else:
1447                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1448
1449        return properties_locs
1450
1451    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1452        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1453            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1454        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1455
1456    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1457        property_cls = expression.__class__
1458        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1459            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1460
1461        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1462        if not property_name:
1463            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1464
1465        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1466
1467    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1468        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1469            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1470            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1471
1472            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1473            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1474                like = f"({like})"
1475
1476            return like
1477
1478        if expression.expressions:
1479            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1480
1481        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1482        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1483
1484    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1485        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1486        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1487        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1488
1489    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1490        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1491        local = expression.args.get("local")
1492        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1493        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1494        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1495        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1496        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1497
1498    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1499        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1501        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1502
1503    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("default"):
1505            property = "DEFAULT"
1506        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1507            property = "ON"
1508        else:
1509            property = "OFF"
1510        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1511
1512    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("no"):
1514            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515        if expression.args.get("default"):
1516            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1517
1518        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1519        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1520
1521    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1522        default = expression.args.get("default")
1523        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1524        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1525        if default or minimum or maximum:
1526            if default:
1527                prop = "DEFAULT"
1528            elif minimum:
1529                prop = "MINIMUM"
1530            else:
1531                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1532            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1533        units = expression.args.get("units")
1534        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1535        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1536
1537    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1538        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1539        always = expression.args.get("always")
1540        default = expression.args.get("default")
1541        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1542        never = expression.args.get("never")
1543
1544        if autotemp is not None:
1545            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1546        elif always:
1547            prop = "ALWAYS"
1548        elif default:
1549            prop = "DEFAULT"
1550        elif manual:
1551            prop = "MANUAL"
1552        elif never:
1553            prop = "NEVER"
1554        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1555
1556    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1557        no = expression.args.get("no")
1558        no = " NO" if no else ""
1559        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1560        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1561        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1562        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1563        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1564
1565    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1567            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1568        if expression.this:
1569            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1571            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1572
1573        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1574        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1575        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1576
1577    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579
1580        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1581        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1582            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1583        else:
1584            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1585
1586        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1587
1588    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1589        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1590        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1591        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1592        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1593        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1594        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1595        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1596
1597    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1598        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1599        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1600        statistics_sql = ""
1601        if statistics is not None:
1602            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1603        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1604
1605    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1608        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1609        data_consistency = (
1610            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1611        )
1612        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1613        retention_period = (
1614            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1615        )
1616
1617        if this:
1618            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1619        else:
1620            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1621
1622        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1623
1624        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1625
1626    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1627        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1628        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1629
1630        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1631            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1632        else:
1633            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1634
1635        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1636        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1637        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1638        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1639        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1640        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1641        if is_function:
1642            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1643        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1644
1645        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1646        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1647        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1648        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1649        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1650        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1651        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1652        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1653
1654        if self.RETURNING_END:
1655            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1656        else:
1657            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1658
1659        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1660        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1661
1662    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1663        return self.set_operations(expression)
1664
1665    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1666        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1667
1668    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1669        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1670
1671    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1673        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1676        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1677
1678    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1679        return expression.name
1680
1681    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1682        return expression.name
1683
1684    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1685        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1686
1687        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1688        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1689
1690        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1691        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1692        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1693
1694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1695        if expressions:
1696            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1697            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1698
1699        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1700
1701    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1702        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1703
1704    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1705        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1706        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1707        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1708        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1709        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1710        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1711        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1712        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1713        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1714        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1715        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1716        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1717        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1718
1719    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1720        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1721
1722    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1723        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1724        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1725        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1726        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1727
1728    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1733
1734    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1735        return ".".join(
1736            self.sql(part)
1737            for part in (
1738                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1739                expression.args.get("db"),
1740                expression.args.get("this"),
1741            )
1742            if part is not None
1743        )
1744
1745    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1746        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1747        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1748        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1749        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1750        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1751        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1752        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1753        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1754        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1755        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1756        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1757        joins = self.indent(
1758            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1759        )
1760        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1761
1762        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1763        if file_format:
1764            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1765            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1766            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1767
1768        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1769        if ordinality:
1770            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1771            alias = ""
1772
1773        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1774        if when:
1775            table = f"{table} {when}"
1776
1777        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1778        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1779
1780        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1781        if rows_from:
1782            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1783
1784        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1785
1786    def tablesample_sql(
1787        self,
1788        expression: exp.TableSample,
1789        sep: str = " AS ",
1790        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1791    ) -> str:
1792        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1793            table = expression.this.copy()
1794            table.set("alias", None)
1795            this = self.sql(table)
1796            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1797        else:
1798            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799            alias = ""
1800
1801        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1802        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1803        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1804        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1805        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1806        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1807        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1808        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1809        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1810
1811        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1812        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1813            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1814
1815        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1816        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1817            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1818
1819        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1820        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1821            expr = f"({expr})"
1822
1823        return (
1824            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1825        )
1826
1827    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829
1830        if expression.this:
1831            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832            if not expressions:
1833                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1834
1835            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1836            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1837            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1838            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1839            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1840
1841        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1842        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1843        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1844
1845        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1846        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1847            field = f"IN ({field})"
1848
1849        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1850        if include_nulls is not None:
1851            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1852        else:
1853            nulls = ""
1854
1855        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1856        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1857        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1858
1859    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1860        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1861        kind = expression.text("kind")
1862        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1863        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1864
1865    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1866        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1867
1868    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1871        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1872        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1873        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1874        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1875        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1876        if self.RETURNING_END:
1877            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1878        else:
1879            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1880        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1881        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1882
1883    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1884        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1885
1886        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1887        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1888            args = self.expressions(expression)
1889            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1890            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1891            values = (
1892                f"({values})"
1893                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1894                else values
1895            )
1896            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1897
1898        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1899        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1900        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1901
1902        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1903
1904        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1905            row = tup.expressions
1906
1907            if i == 0 and column_names:
1908                row = [
1909                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1910                ]
1911
1912            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1913
1914        if self.pretty:
1915            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1916            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1917            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1918            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1919            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1920
1921        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1922        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1923        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1924
1925    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1926        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1927
1928    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1929        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1930        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1931        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1932
1933    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1934        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1935
1936    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1937        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1938        if group_by_all is True:
1939            modifier = " ALL"
1940        elif group_by_all is False:
1941            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1942        else:
1943            modifier = ""
1944
1945        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1946
1947        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1948        grouping_sets = (
1949            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1950        )
1951
1952        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1953        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1954            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1955        else:
1956            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1957            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1958
1959        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1960        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1961            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1962        else:
1963            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1964            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1965
1966        groupings = csv(
1967            grouping_sets,
1968            cube_sql,
1969            rollup_sql,
1970            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1971            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1972        )
1973
1974        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1975            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1976
1977        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1978
1979    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1980        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1981        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1982
1983    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1984        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1985        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1986        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1987        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1988        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1989        return start + connect
1990
1991    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1992        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1993
1994    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1995        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1996            side = None
1997        else:
1998            side = expression.side
1999
2000        op_sql = " ".join(
2001            op
2002            for op in (
2003                expression.method,
2004                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2005                side,
2006                expression.kind,
2007                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2008            )
2009            if op
2010        )
2011        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2012        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2013        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2014        using = expression.args.get("using")
2015
2016        if not on_sql and using:
2017            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2018
2019        this = expression.this
2020        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2021
2022        if on_sql:
2023            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2024            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2025            if using:
2026                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2027            else:
2028                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2029        elif not op_sql:
2030            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2031                return f" {this_sql}"
2032
2033            return f", {this_sql}"
2034
2035        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2036            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2037
2038        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2039
2040    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2041        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2043        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2044
2045    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2046        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2047
2048        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2049        if cross_apply is True:
2050            op = "INNER JOIN "
2051        elif cross_apply is False:
2052            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2053        else:
2054            op = ""
2055
2056        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2057
2058    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060
2061        if expression.args.get("view"):
2062            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2063            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2064            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2065            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2066            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2067            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2068
2069        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2070        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2071        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2072
2073    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075
2076        args = [
2077            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2078            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2079            if e
2080        ]
2081
2082        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2083        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086
2087        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2088
2089    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        value = expression.expression
2092        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2095        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2096
2097    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2098        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2099        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2102        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2103        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2104        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2105        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2106
2107    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2108        expressions = (
2109            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2110        )
2111        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2112        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2113
2114    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2115        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2116
2117    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2118        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2119            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2120            return ""
2121
2122        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2123        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2124        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2125        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2126
2127        if wait is not None:
2128            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2129                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2130            else:
2131                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2132
2133        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2134
2135    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2136        text = expression.this or ""
2137        if expression.is_string:
2138            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2139        return text
2140
2141    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2142        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2143            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2144            text = "".join(
2145                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2146            )
2147
2148        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2149            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2150        )
2151
2152    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2153        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2154        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2155        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2156        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2157        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2158        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2159        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2160        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2161        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2162        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2163        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2164
2165    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2166        return "NULL"
2167
2168    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2169        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2170
2171    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2173        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2174        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2175        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2176        interpolated_values = [
2177            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2178            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2179        ]
2180        interpolate = (
2181            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2182        )
2183        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2184
2185    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2186        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2187        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2188        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2189        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2190        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2191        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2192        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2193
2194    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2195        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2196
2197    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2198        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2199
2200    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2201        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2202
2203    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2204        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2205        asc = not desc
2206
2207        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2208        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2209        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2210        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2211        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2212
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2216        nulls_sort_change = ""
2217        if nulls_first and (
2218            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2219        ):
2220            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2221        elif (
2222            nulls_last
2223            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2224            and not nulls_are_last
2225        ):
2226            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2227
2228        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2229        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2230            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2231            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2232                self.unsupported(
2233                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2234                )
2235                nulls_sort_change = ""
2236            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2237                if expression.this.is_int:
2238                    self.unsupported(
2239                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2240                    )
2241                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2242                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2243                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2244                nulls_sort_change = ""
2245
2246        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2247        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2248
2249        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2250
2251    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2252        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2253        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2254
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256
2257        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2258
2259    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2260        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2261        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2262        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2263        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2264        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2265        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2266        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2267        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2268        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2269        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2270        definition_sqls = [
2271            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2272            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2273        ]
2274        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2275        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2276        body = "".join(
2277            (
2278                partition,
2279                order,
2280                measures,
2281                rows,
2282                after,
2283                pattern,
2284                define,
2285            )
2286        )
2287        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2288        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2289        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2290
2291    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2292        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2293
2294        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2295            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2296        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2297            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2298
2299        return csv(
2300            *sqls,
2301            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2302            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2303            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2304            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2305            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2306            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2307            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2308            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2309            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2310            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2311            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2312            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2313            self.options_modifier(expression),
2314            sep="",
2315        )
2316
2317    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2318        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2319        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2320
2321    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2322        return ""
2323
2324    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2325        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2326    ) -> t.List[str]:
2327        return [
2328            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2329            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2330        ]
2331
2332    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2333        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2334        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2335        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2336
2337    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2338        into = expression.args.get("into")
2339        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2340            into.pop()
2341
2342        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2343        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2344        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2345        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2346
2347        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2348        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2349            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2350            limit.pop()
2351        else:
2352            top = ""
2353
2354        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2355
2356        if kind:
2357            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2358                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2359            else:
2360                if kind == "STRUCT":
2361                    expressions = self.expressions(
2362                        sqls=[
2363                            self.sql(
2364                                exp.Struct(
2365                                    expressions=[
2366                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2367                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2368                                        else e
2369                                        for e in expression.expressions
2370                                    ]
2371                                )
2372                            )
2373                        ]
2374                    )
2375                kind = ""
2376
2377        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2378        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2379        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2380        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2381        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2382            expression,
2383            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2384            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2385            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2386        )
2387
2388        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2389
2390        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2391            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2392                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2393            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2394                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2395            else:
2396                table_kind = ""
2397            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2398
2399        return sql
2400
2401    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2404        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2405
2406    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2407        if expression.expressions:
2408            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2409        return ""
2410
2411    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2412        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2413        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2414        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2415        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2416        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2417        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2418        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2419
2420    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2423
2424    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        kind = expression.text("kind")
2427        if kind:
2428            kind = f"{kind}."
2429        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2430
2431    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2432        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2433
2434    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2436        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2437        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2438        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2440
2441    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2442        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2443        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2444
2445    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2446        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2447            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2448            order = expression.args.get("order")
2449
2450            if limit or order:
2451                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2452
2453                if limit:
2454                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2455                if order:
2456                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2457                return self.sql(select)
2458
2459        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2460        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2461
2462        while stack:
2463            node = stack.pop()
2464
2465            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2466                stack.append(node.expression)
2467                stack.append(
2468                    self.maybe_comment(
2469                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2470                        comments=node.comments,
2471                        separated=True,
2472                    )
2473                )
2474                stack.append(node.this)
2475            else:
2476                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2477
2478        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2479        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2480        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2481
2482    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2483        return self.set_operations(expression)
2484
2485    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2486        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2487        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2488        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2489        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2490
2491    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2492        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2493
2494        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2495        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2496
2497        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2498            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2499                alias.append("columns", offset)
2500
2501        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2502            columns = alias.columns
2503            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2504        else:
2505            alias = self.sql(alias)
2506
2507        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2508        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2509            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2510        else:
2511            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2512                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2513            elif offset:
2514                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2515            else:
2516                suffix = alias
2517
2518        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2519
2520    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2521        return ""
2522
2523    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2524        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2525        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2526
2527    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2530        order = expression.args.get("order")
2531        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2532        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2533        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2534        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2535
2536        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2537
2538        first = expression.args.get("first")
2539        if first is None:
2540            first = ""
2541        else:
2542            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2543
2544        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2545            return f"{this} {alias}"
2546
2547        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2548        return f"{this} ({args})"
2549
2550    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2551        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2552        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2553
2554    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2556        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2557        end = (
2558            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2559            or "CURRENT ROW"
2560        )
2561        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2562
2563    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2565        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2566        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2567
2568    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2571        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2572        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2573
2574    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2575        return apply_index_offset(
2576            expression.this,
2577            expression.expressions,
2578            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2579        )
2580
2581    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2582        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2583        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2584        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2585
2586    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2587        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2588
2589    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2592            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2593                this = self.wrap(this)
2594            return f"ANY{this}"
2595        return f"ANY {this}"
2596
2597    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2598        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2599
2600    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2602        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2603
2604        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2605            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2606            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2607
2608        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2609
2610        if default:
2611            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2612
2613        statements.append("END")
2614
2615        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2616            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2617
2618        return " ".join(statements)
2619
2620    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2623        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2624
2625    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2626        order = expression.args.get("order")
2627        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2628        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2629
2630    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2632        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2633        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2634
2635    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2636        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2637
2638        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2639            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2640        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2641            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2642        else:
2643            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2644
2645    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2646        args = expression.expressions
2647        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2648            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2649
2650        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2651            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2652
2653        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2654            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2655
2656        return args
2657
2658    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2659        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2660
2661        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2662        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2663            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2664
2665        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2666
2667    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2668        return self.func(
2669            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2670        )
2671
2672    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2674        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2675
2676    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2677        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2678        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2679        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2680        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2681        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2682        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2683        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2684        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2685
2686    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2688        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2689        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2690        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2691
2692    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2693        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2694
2695    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2696        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2697        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2698        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2699
2700    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2702
2703    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2704        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2705        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2706            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2707
2708        return path
2709
2710    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2711        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2712            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2713            if not callable(transform):
2714                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2715                return ""
2716
2717            return transform(self, expression)
2718
2719        if isinstance(expression, int):
2720            return str(expression)
2721
2722        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2723            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2724            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2725        else:
2726            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2727            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2728
2729        return escaped
2730
2731    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2733
2734    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737
2738        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2739        if unique_keys is not None:
2740            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2741        else:
2742            unique_keys = ""
2743
2744        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2745        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2746        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2747        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2748
2749        return self.func(
2750            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2751            *expression.expressions,
2752            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2753        )
2754
2755    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2756        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2757
2758    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2759        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2760        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2761        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2762        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2763        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2764        return self.func(
2765            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2766        )
2767
2768    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2771        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2772        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2773        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2774        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2775        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2778            this,
2779            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2780        )
2781
2782    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2783        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2784        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2785        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2786
2787        if nested_schema:
2788            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2789
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2792        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2793        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2794
2795    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2796        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2797
2798    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2801        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2802        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2803        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2804        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2805        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2806        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2807        return self.func(
2808            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2809        )
2810
2811    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2814        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2815        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2816        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2817        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2818
2819    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2822        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2823        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2824        with_ = (
2825            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2826            if expressions
2827            else ""
2828        )
2829        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2830
2831    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2832        query = expression.args.get("query")
2833        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2834        field = expression.args.get("field")
2835        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2836
2837        if query:
2838            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2839        elif unnest:
2840            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2841        elif field:
2842            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2843        else:
2844            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2845
2846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2847
2848    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2849        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2850
2851    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2852        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2853        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2854            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2855        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2856
2857        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2858            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2859            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2860
2861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2862        if this:
2863            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2864            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2865
2866        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2867
2868    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2869        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2870
2871    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2873        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2874        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2875        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2876        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2877        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2878
2879    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2880        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2881
2882    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2883        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2884        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2885
2886    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2887        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2888        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2889        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2890        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2891
2892    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2893        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2894
2895    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2897        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2899
2900    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2901        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2902        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2903
2904        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2905            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2906        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2907            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2908
2909        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2910
2911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2913
2914    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2917        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2918
2919    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2922        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2923
2924    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2927        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2928
2929    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2930        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2931
2932    def and_sql(
2933        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2934    ) -> str:
2935        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2936
2937    def or_sql(
2938        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2939    ) -> str:
2940        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2941
2942    def xor_sql(
2943        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2944    ) -> str:
2945        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2946
2947    def connector_sql(
2948        self,
2949        expression: exp.Connector,
2950        op: str,
2951        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2952    ) -> str:
2953        if stack is not None:
2954            if expression.expressions:
2955                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2956            else:
2957                stack.append(expression.right)
2958                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2959                    for comment in expression.comments:
2960                        if comment:
2961                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2962                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2963            return op
2964
2965        stack = [expression]
2966        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2967        ops = set()
2968
2969        while stack:
2970            node = stack.pop()
2971            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2972                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2973            else:
2974                sql = self.sql(node)
2975                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2976                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2977                else:
2978                    sqls.append(sql)
2979
2980        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2981        return sep.join(sqls)
2982
2983    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2984        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2985
2986    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2987        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2988
2989    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2990        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2991
2992    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2993        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2994
2995    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2997
2998    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2999        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3000
3001    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3002        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3003        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3004        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3005        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3006        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3007        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3008        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3009
3010    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3011        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3013
3014    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3015        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3016            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3017        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3018
3019    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3021
3022    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3025        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3026        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3027        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3028        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3029
3030    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3033        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3034        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3035        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3036        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3037        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3038        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3039        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3040
3041    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3042        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3043        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3044        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3045        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3046
3047        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3048            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3049
3050        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3051
3052    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3053        return "BEGIN"
3054
3055    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3056        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3057        if chain is not None:
3058            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3059
3060        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3061
3062    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3063        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3064        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3065        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3066
3067    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3069
3070        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3071        if dtype:
3072            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3073            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3074            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3075            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3076            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3077
3078        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3079        if default:
3080            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3081
3082        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3083        if comment:
3084            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3085
3086        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3087        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3088
3089        if not drop and not allow_null:
3090            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3091
3092        if allow_null is not None:
3093            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3094            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3095
3096        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3097
3098    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3100        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3101            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3102        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3103
3104    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3105        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3107        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3108        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3109        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3110
3111    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3112        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3113            # Remove db from tables
3114            expression = expression.transform(
3115                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3116            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3118        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3119
3120    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3121        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3122        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3123        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3124        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3125
3126    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3127        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3128        return f"SET {exprs}"
3129
3130    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3131        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3132
3133        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3134            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3135        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3136            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3137        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3138            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3139        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3140            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3141        else:
3142            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3143
3144        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3145        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3146        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3147        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3148        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3149        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3150        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3151        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3152
3153    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3154        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3155            return self.expressions(
3156                expression,
3157                key="actions",
3158                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3159                skip_first=True,
3160            )
3161        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3162
3163    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3164        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3165        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3166        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3167
3168    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3169        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3170
3171    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3172        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3173
3174        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3175            case = exp.case()
3176            for arg in expression.expressions:
3177                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3178            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3179
3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3181
3182        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3183        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3184        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3185
3186    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3187        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3188
3189    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3190        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3191
3192    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3193        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3195        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3196        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3197
3198    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3199        return self.sql(
3200            exp.Cast(
3201                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3202                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3203            )
3204        )
3205
3206    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3207        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3208            return self.func(
3209                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3210            )
3211        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3212
3213    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3214        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3215
3216        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3217            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3218
3219        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3220            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3221                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3222
3223        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3224            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3225                return self.sql(
3226                    exp.cast(
3227                        l / r,
3228                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3229                    )
3230                )
3231
3232        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3233
3234    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3236
3237    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3239
3240    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3241        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3242
3243    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3245
3246    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3248
3249    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3251
3252    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3254
3255    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3257
3258    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3260
3261    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3263
3264    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3266
3267    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3268        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3269            return self.sql(
3270                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3271            )
3272        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3273
3274    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3276
3277    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3279
3280    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3282
3283    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3285
3286    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3288
3289    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3291
3292    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3294
3295    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3297
3298    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3300
3301    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3303
3304    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3306
3307    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3309
3310    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3311        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3312
3313    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3314        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3315            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3316            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3317
3318        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3319
3320    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3321        this = expression.this
3322        expr = expression.expression
3323
3324        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3325            this, expr = expr, this
3326        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3327            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3328                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3329
3330            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3331
3332        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3333
3334    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3335        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3336        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3338        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3339        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3340
3341    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3342        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3344
3345    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3346        args = []
3347
3348        for key in expression.arg_types:
3349            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3350
3351            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3352                for value in arg_value:
3353                    args.append(value)
3354            elif arg_value is not None:
3355                args.append(arg_value)
3356
3357        if self.normalize_functions:
3358            name = expression.sql_name()
3359        else:
3360            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3361
3362        return self.func(name, *args)
3363
3364    def func(
3365        self,
3366        name: str,
3367        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3368        prefix: str = "(",
3369        suffix: str = ")",
3370    ) -> str:
3371        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3372
3373    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3374        arg_sqls = tuple(
3375            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3376        )
3377        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3378            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3379        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3380
3381    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3382        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3383
3384    def format_time(
3385        self,
3386        expression: exp.Expression,
3387        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3388        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3389    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3390        return format_time(
3391            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3392            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3393            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3394        )
3395
3396    def expressions(
3397        self,
3398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3399        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3400        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3401        flat: bool = False,
3402        indent: bool = True,
3403        skip_first: bool = False,
3404        skip_last: bool = False,
3405        sep: str = ", ",
3406        prefix: str = "",
3407        dynamic: bool = False,
3408        new_line: bool = False,
3409    ) -> str:
3410        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3411
3412        if not expressions:
3413            return ""
3414
3415        if flat:
3416            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3417
3418        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3419        result_sqls = []
3420
3421        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3422            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3423            if not sql:
3424                continue
3425
3426            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3427
3428            if self.pretty:
3429                if self.leading_comma:
3430                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3431                else:
3432                    result_sqls.append(
3433                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3434                    )
3435            else:
3436                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3437
3438        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3439            if new_line:
3440                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3441                result_sqls.append("")
3442            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3443        else:
3444            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3445        return (
3446            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3447            if indent
3448            else result_sql
3449        )
3450
3451    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3452        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3453        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3454        if flat:
3455            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3456        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3457
3458    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3460        if not property_name:
3461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3462        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3463
3464    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3465        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3466
3467    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3468        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3469
3470    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3472        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3473        expressions = (
3474            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3475        )
3476        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3477
3478    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3480        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3481        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3482
3483    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3484        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3485
3486    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3487        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3488        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3489        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3490        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3491
3492        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3493        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3494            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3495            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3496            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3497            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3498        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3499            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3500                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3501            else:
3502                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3503        else:
3504            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3505        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3506
3507    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3508        table = expression.this
3509        table_alias = ""
3510
3511        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3512        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3513            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3514            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3515
3516        this = self.sql(table)
3517        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3518        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3520        sep = self.sep()
3521
3522        return self.prepend_ctes(
3523            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3524        )
3525
3526    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3527        if expression.args.get("format"):
3528            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3529
3530        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3531
3532    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3533        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3534            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3535            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3536
3537        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3538        if not fmt:
3539            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3540            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3541
3542        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3543
3544    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3546        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3547        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3548        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3549        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3550
3551    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3553        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3554        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3555        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3556
3557    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3558        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3559
3560    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3561        return ""
3562
3563    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3564        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3565        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3566        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3567        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3568        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3569
3570    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3572        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3573
3574        if having:
3575            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3576
3577        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3578
3579    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3580        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3581        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3582        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3583        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3584        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3585        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3586        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3587        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3588        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3589        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3590        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3591        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3592        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3593
3594    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3595        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3596        if key_block_size:
3597            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3598
3599        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3600        if using:
3601            return f"USING {using}"
3602
3603        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3604        if parser:
3605            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3606
3607        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3608        if comment:
3609            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3610
3611        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3612        if visible is not None:
3613            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3614
3615        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3616        if engine_attr:
3617            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3618
3619        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3620        if secondary_engine_attr:
3621            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3622
3623        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3624        return ""
3625
3626    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3627        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3628        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3629
3630    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3631        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3632        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3635        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3636        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3637        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3638        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3639        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3640        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3641        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3642
3643    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3644        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3645            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3646
3647        case = exp.Case().when(
3648            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3649            expression.args["true"],
3650            copy=False,
3651        )
3652        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3653        if else_cond:
3654            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3655
3656        return self.sql(case)
3657
3658    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3660        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3661        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3662        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3663        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3664        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3665
3666    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3668
3669    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3670        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3671
3672    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3673        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3674        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3675        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3676        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3677        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3678        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3679
3680    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3683        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3684
3685    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3688        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3689
3690    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3691        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3692
3693    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3694        arg = expression.this
3695        if not arg.type:
3696            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3697
3698            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3699
3700        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3701            return self.sql(arg)
3702
3703        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3704        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3705
3706    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3707        this = expression.this
3708        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3709            return self.sql(this)
3710
3711        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3712
3713    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3714        this = expression.this
3715        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3716            return self.sql(this)
3717
3718        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3719
3720    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3721        this = expression.this
3722        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3723
3724        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3725            return self.sql(
3726                exp.cast(
3727                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3728                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3729                )
3730            )
3731
3732        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3733            return self.sql(this)
3734
3735        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3736
3737    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3738        return self.sql(
3739            exp.func(
3740                "DATEDIFF",
3741                expression.this,
3742                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3743                "day",
3744            )
3745        )
3746
3747    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3748        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3749            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3750
3751        unit = expression.text("unit")
3752        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3753            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3754
3755        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3756
3757    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3758        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3759
3760        return self.func(
3761            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3762        )
3763
3764    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3765        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3766            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3767            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3768            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3769            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3770
3771        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3772
3773        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3774        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3775            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3776
3777        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3778
3779    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3780        expression.set(
3781            "expressions",
3782            [
3783                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3784                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3785                else e
3786                for e in expression.expressions
3787            ],
3788        )
3789
3790        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3791
3792    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3793        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3794        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3795
3796        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3797
3798    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3799        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3800        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3801
3802        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3803
3804        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3805        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3806
3807        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3808        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3809
3810        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3811        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3812
3813        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3814        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3815
3816        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3817
3818    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3819    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3820    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3821        to = expression.this
3822        value = expression.expression
3823        style = expression.args.get("style")
3824        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3825        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3826
3827        if not to or not value:
3828            return ""
3829
3830        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3831        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3832            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3833
3834        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3835        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3836
3837        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3838        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3839            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3840
3841            style_value = style.name
3842            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3843            if not converted_style:
3844                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3845
3846            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3847
3848            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3849                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3850            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3851                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3852            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3853                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3854            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3855                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3856
3857        if not transformed:
3858            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3859
3860        return self.sql(transformed)
3861
3862    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3863        this = expression.this
3864        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3865            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3866            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3867
3868        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3869            return f".{this}"
3870
3871        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3872        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3873
3874    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3875        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3876        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3877
3878    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3879        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3880            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3881
3882            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3883
3884        return expression
3885
3886    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3887        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3888            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3889            mods = sorted(
3890                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3891                key=lambda x: 0
3892                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3893                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3894            )
3895
3896            if mods:
3897                mod = mods[0]
3898                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3899                this.meta["inline"] = True
3900                mod.this.replace(this)
3901                return self.sql(expression.this)
3902
3903            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3904
3905            if agg_func:
3906                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3907
3908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3909
3910    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3911        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3912        if self.pretty:
3913            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3914        return string
3915
3916    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3917        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3918
3919        if expression.expressions:
3920            upper = option.upper()
3921
3922            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3923            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3924
3925            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3926            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3927            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3928            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3929
3930        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3931
3932        if not value:
3933            return option
3934
3935        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3936
3937        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3938
3939    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3940        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3941        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3942            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3943            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3944            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3945        else:
3946            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3947            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3948            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3949
3950        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3951        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3952
3953        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3954        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3955
3956        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3957        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3958
3959        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3960        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3961
3962        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3963
3964    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3966        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3967
3968        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3969        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3970        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3971        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3972
3973        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3974        params = self.expressions(
3975            expression,
3976            key="params",
3977            sep=sep,
3978            new_line=True,
3979            skip_last=True,
3980            skip_first=True,
3981            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3982        )
3983
3984        if params:
3985            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3986                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3987            elif not self.pretty:
3988                params = f" {params}"
3989
3990        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3991
3992    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3993        return ""
3994
3995    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3996        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3997        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3998        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3999        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4000        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4001
4002        if filter_col or retention_period:
4003            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4004
4005        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4006
4007    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4008        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4009    ) -> str:
4010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4012        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4013        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4014
4015    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4017        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4018        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4019
4020    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4021        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4022
4023    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4025        expr = expression.expression
4026
4027        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4028            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4029            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4030        else:
4031            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4032
4033        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4034
4035    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4036        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4037            return self.sql(expression.this)
4038
4039        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4040
4041    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4042        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4043        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4044
4045        if lower and upper:
4046            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4047        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4048
4049    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4050        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4051        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4052        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4053        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4054        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4055        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4056
4057        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4058
4059    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4060        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4061
4062        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4063        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4064            fill_pattern = "' '"
4065
4066        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4067
4068    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4069        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4070        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4071
4072    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4073        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4074
4075        parent = expression.parent
4076        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4077            parent = parent.parent
4078
4079        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4080            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4081
4082        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4083            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4084
4085        return self.sql(generate_series)
4086
4087    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4088        exprs = expression.expressions
4089        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4090            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4091        else:
4092            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4093
4094        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4095
4096    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4097        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4098            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4099
4100        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4101        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4102        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4103
4104        if source_tz and timestamp:
4105            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4106                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4107            )
4108
4109        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4110
4111        return self.sql(expr)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
586    def __init__(
587        self,
588        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
589        identify: str | bool = False,
590        normalize: bool = False,
591        pad: int = 2,
592        indent: int = 2,
593        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
594        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
595        max_unsupported: int = 3,
596        leading_comma: bool = False,
597        max_text_width: int = 80,
598        comments: bool = True,
599        dialect: DialectType = None,
600    ):
601        import sqlglot
602        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
603
604        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
605        self.identify = identify
606        self.normalize = normalize
607        self.pad = pad
608        self._indent = indent
609        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
610        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
611        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
612        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
613        self.comments = comments
614        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
615
616        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
617        self.normalize_functions = (
618            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
619        )
620
621        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
622        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
623            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
624        )
625        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
627        )
628
629        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
631    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
632        """
633        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
634
635        Args:
636            expression: The syntax tree.
637            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
638                it is safer to copy.
639
640        Returns:
641            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
642        """
643        if copy:
644            expression = expression.copy()
645
646        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
647
648        self.unsupported_messages = []
649        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
650
651        if self.pretty:
652            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
653
654        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
655            return sql
656
657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
658            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
659                logger.warning(msg)
660        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
661            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
662
663        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
665    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
666        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
667        if (
668            not expression.parent
669            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
670            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
671        ):
672            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
673
674            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
675
676        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
677            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
678
679            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
680
681        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
683    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
684        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
685            raise UnsupportedError(message)
686        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
688    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
689        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
691    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
692        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
694    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
695        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
696        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
697        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
699    def maybe_comment(
700        self,
701        sql: str,
702        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
703        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
704        separated: bool = False,
705    ) -> str:
706        comments = (
707            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
708            if self.comments
709            else None
710        )
711
712        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
713            return sql
714
715        comments_sql = " ".join(
716            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
717        )
718
719        if not comments_sql:
720            return sql
721
722        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
723
724        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
725            return (
726                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
727                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
728                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
729            )
730
731        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
733    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
734        this_sql = (
735            self.sql(expression)
736            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
737            else self.sql(expression, "this")
738        )
739        if not this_sql:
740            return "()"
741
742        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
743        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
745    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
746        original = self.identify
747        self.identify = False
748        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
749        self.identify = original
750        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
752    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
753        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
754            return name.upper()
755        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
756            return name.lower()
757        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
759    def indent(
760        self,
761        sql: str,
762        level: int = 0,
763        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
764        skip_first: bool = False,
765        skip_last: bool = False,
766    ) -> str:
767        if not self.pretty or not sql:
768            return sql
769
770        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
771        lines = sql.split("\n")
772
773        return "\n".join(
774            (
775                line
776                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
777                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
778            )
779            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
780        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
782    def sql(
783        self,
784        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
785        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
786        comment: bool = True,
787    ) -> str:
788        if not expression:
789            return ""
790
791        if isinstance(expression, str):
792            return expression
793
794        if key:
795            value = expression.args.get(key)
796            if value:
797                return self.sql(value)
798            return ""
799
800        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
801
802        if callable(transform):
803            sql = transform(self, expression)
804        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
805            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
806
807            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
808                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
810                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
812                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
813            else:
814                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
815        else:
816            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
817
818        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
820    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
821        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
822        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
823        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
825    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
826        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
827        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
828        options = expression.args.get("options")
829        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
830        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
831        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
832        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
835    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
836        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
837            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
838        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
839        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
841    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
842        return ".".join(
843            self.sql(part)
844            for part in (
845                expression.args.get("catalog"),
846                expression.args.get("db"),
847                expression.args.get("table"),
848                expression.args.get("this"),
849            )
850            if part
851        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
853    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
854        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
855
856        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
857            join_mark = ""
858            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
859
860        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
862    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
864        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
865        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
866        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
868    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
869        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
871        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
872        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
873        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
874        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
875        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
876        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
877
878        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
879            kind = ""
880
881        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
883    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
885        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
886        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
888    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
890        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
891            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
892        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
893            persisted = " PERSISTED"
894        else:
895            persisted = ""
896        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
898    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
899        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
901    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
902        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
903            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
904        else:
905            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
906
907        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
909    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
910        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
911    ) -> str:
912        this = ""
913        if expression.this is not None:
914            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
915            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
916
917        start = expression.args.get("start")
918        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
919        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
920        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
921        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
922        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
923        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
924        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
925        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
926        cycle_sql = ""
927
928        if cycle is not None:
929            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
930            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
931
932        sequence_opts = ""
933        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
934            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
935            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
936
937        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
938        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
939
940        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
943        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
944    ) -> str:
945        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
946        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
947        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
949    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
950        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
951    ) -> str:
952        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
954    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
955        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
957    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
958        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
960    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
961        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
962        if desc is not None:
963            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
964        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
966    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
968        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
969        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
970        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
971        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
972        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
973        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
974        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
976    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
977        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 979    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 981        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 982        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 983
 984        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 985
 986        properties_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 988            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 989        ):
 990            properties_sql = self.sql(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=[
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 994                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 995                    ]
 996                )
 997            )
 998
 999            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1000                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1001            elif not self.pretty:
1002                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1003                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1004
1005        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1006        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1007
1008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1009        if expression_sql:
1010            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1011
1012            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1013                postalias_props_sql = ""
1014                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1015                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                        exp.Properties(
1017                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1018                        ),
1019                        wrapped=False,
1020                    )
1021                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1022                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1023
1024        postindex_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1026            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1028                wrapped=False,
1029                prefix=" ",
1030            )
1031
1032        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1033        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1034        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1035
1036        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1037        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1038        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1039
1040        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1041        if clustered is None:
1042            clustered_sql = ""
1043        elif clustered:
1044            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045        else:
1046            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1047
1048        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1050            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1051                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1052                sep=" ",
1053                prefix=" ",
1054                wrapped=False,
1055            )
1056
1057        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1058
1059        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1060        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1061            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1062                exp.Properties(
1063                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1064                ),
1065                sep=" ",
1066                prefix=" ",
1067                wrapped=False,
1068            )
1069
1070        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1071        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1072        no_schema_binding = (
1073            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1074        )
1075
1076        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1077        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1078
1079        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1080        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1082    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1083        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1084        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1085        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1086        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1087        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1088        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1089        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1090        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1091        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1092        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1093
1094        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1095        if cache is None:
1096            cache_str = ""
1097        elif cache is True:
1098            cache_str = " CACHE"
1099        else:
1100            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1101
1102        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1103        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1104
1105        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1107    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1110        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1111        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1113    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1114        style = expression.args.get("style")
1115        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1116        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1118    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1119        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1120        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1122    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1123        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1124        if with_:
1125            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1126        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1128    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1129        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1130        recursive = (
1131            "RECURSIVE "
1132            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1133            else ""
1134        )
1135
1136        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1138    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1139        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1140
1141        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1142        if materialized is False:
1143            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1144        elif materialized:
1145            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1146
1147        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1149    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1150        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1152        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1153
1154        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1155            columns = ""
1156            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1157
1158        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1159            alias = self._next_name()
1160
1161        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1163    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1166            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1167        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1169    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1175    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1179        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1181    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1184
1185        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1186            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1187            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1188        else:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1191
1192        if escape:
1193            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1194            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1195        else:
1196            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1197            escape_sql = ""
1198
1199        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1200            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1201
1202        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1204    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1205        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1206        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1208    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1211        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1212        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1214    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1215        type_value = expression.this
1216
1217        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1218            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1219        else:
1220            type_sql = (
1221                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1222                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1223                else type_value
1224            )
1225
1226        nested = ""
1227        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1228        values = ""
1229
1230        if interior:
1231            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1232                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1233                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1234                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1235                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1236                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1237            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1238                nested = f" {interior}"
1239            else:
1240                nested = f"({interior})"
1241
1242        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1243        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1245            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1246        ):
1247            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1248
1249        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1251    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1252        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1253        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1254        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1255        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1257    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1263        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1264        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1265        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1266        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1267        if self.RETURNING_END:
1268            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1269        else:
1270            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1271        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1273    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1276        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1277        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1278        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1279        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1280        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1283        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1284        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1285        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1286        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1288    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1289        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1291    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1292        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1294    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1295        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1296        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1297        count = expression.args.get("count")
1298        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1299        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1300            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1301        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1302        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1304    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1305        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1306            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1308            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1309
1310        agg = expression.this
1311        agg_arg = agg.this
1312        cond = expression.expression.this
1313        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1314        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1316    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1317        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1318            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1319            return ""
1320
1321        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1323    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1327        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1328        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1329        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1331        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1332        if include:
1333            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1334        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1335        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1336        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1337        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1338        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1340
1341        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1343    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1344        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1345        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1346        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1347        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1349        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1350        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1351
1352        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1353
1354        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1355        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1357    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1358        text = expression.name
1359        lower = text.lower()
1360        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1361        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1362        if (
1363            expression.quoted
1364            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1365            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1366            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1367        ):
1368            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1369        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1371    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1372        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1373        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1374            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1375
1376        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1378    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1379        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1380        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1381            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1382        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1384    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1385        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1386        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1387        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1388        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1389        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1391    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1392        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1393        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1395    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1396        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1398    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        root_properties = []
1400        with_properties = []
1401
1402        for p in expression.expressions:
1403            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1404            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1405                with_properties.append(p)
1406            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1407                root_properties.append(p)
1408
1409        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1410        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1411
1412        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1413            with_props = " " + with_props
1414
1415        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1417    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1418        if properties.expressions:
1419            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1420        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1422    def properties(
1423        self,
1424        properties: exp.Properties,
1425        prefix: str = "",
1426        sep: str = ", ",
1427        suffix: str = "",
1428        wrapped: bool = True,
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if properties.expressions:
1431            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1432            if expressions:
1433                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1434                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1435        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1437    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1438        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1440    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1441        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1442        for p in properties.expressions:
1443            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1444            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1445                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1446            else:
1447                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1448
1449        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1451    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1452        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1453            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1454        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1456    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1457        property_cls = expression.__class__
1458        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1459            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1460
1461        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1462        if not property_name:
1463            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1464
1465        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1467    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1468        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1469            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1470            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1471
1472            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1473            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1474                like = f"({like})"
1475
1476            return like
1477
1478        if expression.expressions:
1479            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1480
1481        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1482        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1484    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1485        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1486        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1487        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1489    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1490        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1491        local = expression.args.get("local")
1492        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1493        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1494        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1495        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1496        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1498    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1499        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1501        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1503    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("default"):
1505            property = "DEFAULT"
1506        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1507            property = "ON"
1508        else:
1509            property = "OFF"
1510        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1512    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("no"):
1514            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515        if expression.args.get("default"):
1516            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1517
1518        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1519        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1521    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1522        default = expression.args.get("default")
1523        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1524        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1525        if default or minimum or maximum:
1526            if default:
1527                prop = "DEFAULT"
1528            elif minimum:
1529                prop = "MINIMUM"
1530            else:
1531                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1532            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1533        units = expression.args.get("units")
1534        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1535        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1537    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1538        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1539        always = expression.args.get("always")
1540        default = expression.args.get("default")
1541        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1542        never = expression.args.get("never")
1543
1544        if autotemp is not None:
1545            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1546        elif always:
1547            prop = "ALWAYS"
1548        elif default:
1549            prop = "DEFAULT"
1550        elif manual:
1551            prop = "MANUAL"
1552        elif never:
1553            prop = "NEVER"
1554        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1556    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1557        no = expression.args.get("no")
1558        no = " NO" if no else ""
1559        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1560        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1561        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1562        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1563        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1565    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1567            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1568        if expression.this:
1569            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1571            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1572
1573        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1574        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1575        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1577    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579
1580        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1581        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1582            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1583        else:
1584            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1585
1586        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1588    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1589        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1590        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1591        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1592        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1593        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1594        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1595        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1597    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1598        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1599        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1600        statistics_sql = ""
1601        if statistics is not None:
1602            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1603        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1605    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1608        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1609        data_consistency = (
1610            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1611        )
1612        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1613        retention_period = (
1614            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1615        )
1616
1617        if this:
1618            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1619        else:
1620            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1621
1622        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1623
1624        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1626    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1627        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1628        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1629
1630        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1631            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1632        else:
1633            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1634
1635        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1636        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1637        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1638        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1639        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1640        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1641        if is_function:
1642            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1643        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1644
1645        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1646        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1647        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1648        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1649        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1650        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1651        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1652        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1653
1654        if self.RETURNING_END:
1655            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1656        else:
1657            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1658
1659        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1660        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1662    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1663        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1665    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1666        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1668    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1669        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1671    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1673        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1676        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1678    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1679        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1681    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1682        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1684    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1685        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1686
1687        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1688        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1689
1690        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1691        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1692        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1693
1694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1695        if expressions:
1696            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1697            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1698
1699        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1701    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1702        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1704    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1705        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1706        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1707        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1708        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1709        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1710        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1711        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1712        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1713        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1714        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1715        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1716        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1717        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1719    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1720        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1722    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1723        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1724        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1725        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1726        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1728    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1734    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1735        return ".".join(
1736            self.sql(part)
1737            for part in (
1738                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1739                expression.args.get("db"),
1740                expression.args.get("this"),
1741            )
1742            if part is not None
1743        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1745    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1746        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1747        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1748        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1749        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1750        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1751        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1752        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1753        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1754        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1755        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1756        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1757        joins = self.indent(
1758            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1759        )
1760        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1761
1762        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1763        if file_format:
1764            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1765            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1766            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1767
1768        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1769        if ordinality:
1770            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1771            alias = ""
1772
1773        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1774        if when:
1775            table = f"{table} {when}"
1776
1777        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1778        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1779
1780        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1781        if rows_from:
1782            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1783
1784        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1786    def tablesample_sql(
1787        self,
1788        expression: exp.TableSample,
1789        sep: str = " AS ",
1790        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1791    ) -> str:
1792        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1793            table = expression.this.copy()
1794            table.set("alias", None)
1795            this = self.sql(table)
1796            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1797        else:
1798            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799            alias = ""
1800
1801        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1802        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1803        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1804        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1805        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1806        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1807        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1808        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1809        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1810
1811        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1812        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1813            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1814
1815        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1816        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1817            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1818
1819        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1820        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1821            expr = f"({expr})"
1822
1823        return (
1824            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1825        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1827    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829
1830        if expression.this:
1831            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832            if not expressions:
1833                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1834
1835            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1836            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1837            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1838            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1839            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1840
1841        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1842        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1843        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1844
1845        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1846        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1847            field = f"IN ({field})"
1848
1849        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1850        if include_nulls is not None:
1851            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1852        else:
1853            nulls = ""
1854
1855        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1856        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1857        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1859    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1860        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1861        kind = expression.text("kind")
1862        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1863        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1865    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1866        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1868    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1871        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1872        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1873        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1874        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1875        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1876        if self.RETURNING_END:
1877            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1878        else:
1879            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1880        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1881        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1883    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1884        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1885
1886        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1887        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1888            args = self.expressions(expression)
1889            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1890            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1891            values = (
1892                f"({values})"
1893                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1894                else values
1895            )
1896            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1897
1898        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1899        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1900        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1901
1902        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1903
1904        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1905            row = tup.expressions
1906
1907            if i == 0 and column_names:
1908                row = [
1909                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1910                ]
1911
1912            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1913
1914        if self.pretty:
1915            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1916            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1917            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1918            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1919            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1920
1921        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1922        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1923        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1925    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1926        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1928    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1929        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1930        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1931        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1933    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1934        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1936    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1937        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1938        if group_by_all is True:
1939            modifier = " ALL"
1940        elif group_by_all is False:
1941            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1942        else:
1943            modifier = ""
1944
1945        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1946
1947        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1948        grouping_sets = (
1949            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1950        )
1951
1952        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1953        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1954            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1955        else:
1956            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1957            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1958
1959        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1960        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1961            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1962        else:
1963            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1964            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1965
1966        groupings = csv(
1967            grouping_sets,
1968            cube_sql,
1969            rollup_sql,
1970            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1971            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1972        )
1973
1974        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1975            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1976
1977        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1979    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1980        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1981        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1983    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1984        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1985        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1986        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1987        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1988        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1989        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1991    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1992        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1994    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1995        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1996            side = None
1997        else:
1998            side = expression.side
1999
2000        op_sql = " ".join(
2001            op
2002            for op in (
2003                expression.method,
2004                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2005                side,
2006                expression.kind,
2007                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2008            )
2009            if op
2010        )
2011        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2012        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2013        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2014        using = expression.args.get("using")
2015
2016        if not on_sql and using:
2017            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2018
2019        this = expression.this
2020        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2021
2022        if on_sql:
2023            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2024            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2025            if using:
2026                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2027            else:
2028                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2029        elif not op_sql:
2030            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2031                return f" {this_sql}"
2032
2033            return f", {this_sql}"
2034
2035        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2036            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2037
2038        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2040    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2041        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2043        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2045    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2046        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2047
2048        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2049        if cross_apply is True:
2050            op = "INNER JOIN "
2051        elif cross_apply is False:
2052            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2053        else:
2054            op = ""
2055
2056        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2058    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060
2061        if expression.args.get("view"):
2062            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2063            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2064            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2065            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2066            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2067            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2068
2069        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2070        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2071        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2073    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075
2076        args = [
2077            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2078            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2079            if e
2080        ]
2081
2082        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2083        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086
2087        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2089    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        value = expression.expression
2092        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2095        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2097    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2098        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2099        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2102        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2103        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2104        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2105        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2107    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2108        expressions = (
2109            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2110        )
2111        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2112        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2114    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2115        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2117    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2118        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2119            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2120            return ""
2121
2122        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2123        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2124        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2125        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2126
2127        if wait is not None:
2128            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2129                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2130            else:
2131                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2132
2133        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2135    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2136        text = expression.this or ""
2137        if expression.is_string:
2138            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2139        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2141    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2142        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2143            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2144            text = "".join(
2145                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2146            )
2147
2148        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2149            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2150        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2152    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2153        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2154        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2155        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2156        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2157        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2158        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2159        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2160        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2161        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2162        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2163        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2165    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2166        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2168    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2169        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2171    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2173        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2174        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2175        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2176        interpolated_values = [
2177            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2178            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2179        ]
2180        interpolate = (
2181            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2182        )
2183        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2185    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2186        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2187        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2188        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2189        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2190        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2191        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2192        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2194    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2195        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2197    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2198        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2200    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2201        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2203    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2204        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2205        asc = not desc
2206
2207        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2208        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2209        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2210        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2211        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2212
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2216        nulls_sort_change = ""
2217        if nulls_first and (
2218            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2219        ):
2220            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2221        elif (
2222            nulls_last
2223            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2224            and not nulls_are_last
2225        ):
2226            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2227
2228        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2229        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2230            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2231            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2232                self.unsupported(
2233                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2234                )
2235                nulls_sort_change = ""
2236            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2237                if expression.this.is_int:
2238                    self.unsupported(
2239                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2240                    )
2241                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2242                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2243                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2244                nulls_sort_change = ""
2245
2246        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2247        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2248
2249        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2251    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2252        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2253        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2254
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256
2257        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2259    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2260        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2261        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2262        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2263        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2264        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2265        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2266        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2267        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2268        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2269        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2270        definition_sqls = [
2271            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2272            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2273        ]
2274        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2275        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2276        body = "".join(
2277            (
2278                partition,
2279                order,
2280                measures,
2281                rows,
2282                after,
2283                pattern,
2284                define,
2285            )
2286        )
2287        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2288        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2289        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2291    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2292        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2293
2294        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2295            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2296        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2297            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2298
2299        return csv(
2300            *sqls,
2301            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2302            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2303            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2304            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2305            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2306            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2307            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2308            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2309            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2310            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2311            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2312            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2313            self.options_modifier(expression),
2314            sep="",
2315        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2317    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2318        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2319        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2321    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2322        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2324    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2325        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2326    ) -> t.List[str]:
2327        return [
2328            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2329            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2330        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2332    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2333        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2334        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2335        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2337    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2338        into = expression.args.get("into")
2339        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2340            into.pop()
2341
2342        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2343        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2344        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2345        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2346
2347        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2348        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2349            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2350            limit.pop()
2351        else:
2352            top = ""
2353
2354        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2355
2356        if kind:
2357            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2358                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2359            else:
2360                if kind == "STRUCT":
2361                    expressions = self.expressions(
2362                        sqls=[
2363                            self.sql(
2364                                exp.Struct(
2365                                    expressions=[
2366                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2367                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2368                                        else e
2369                                        for e in expression.expressions
2370                                    ]
2371                                )
2372                            )
2373                        ]
2374                    )
2375                kind = ""
2376
2377        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2378        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2379        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2380        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2381        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2382            expression,
2383            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2384            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2385            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2386        )
2387
2388        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2389
2390        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2391            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2392                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2393            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2394                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2395            else:
2396                table_kind = ""
2397            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2398
2399        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2401    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2404        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2406    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2407        if expression.expressions:
2408            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2409        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2411    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2412        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2413        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2414        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2415        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2416        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2417        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2418        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2420    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2424    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        kind = expression.text("kind")
2427        if kind:
2428            kind = f"{kind}."
2429        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2431    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2432        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2434    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2436        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2437        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2438        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2441    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2442        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2443        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2445    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2446        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2447            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2448            order = expression.args.get("order")
2449
2450            if limit or order:
2451                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2452
2453                if limit:
2454                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2455                if order:
2456                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2457                return self.sql(select)
2458
2459        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2460        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2461
2462        while stack:
2463            node = stack.pop()
2464
2465            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2466                stack.append(node.expression)
2467                stack.append(
2468                    self.maybe_comment(
2469                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2470                        comments=node.comments,
2471                        separated=True,
2472                    )
2473                )
2474                stack.append(node.this)
2475            else:
2476                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2477
2478        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2479        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2480        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2482    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2483        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2485    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2486        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2487        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2488        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2489        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2491    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2492        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2493
2494        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2495        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2496
2497        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2498            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2499                alias.append("columns", offset)
2500
2501        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2502            columns = alias.columns
2503            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2504        else:
2505            alias = self.sql(alias)
2506
2507        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2508        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2509            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2510        else:
2511            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2512                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2513            elif offset:
2514                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2515            else:
2516                suffix = alias
2517
2518        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2520    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2521        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2523    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2524        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2525        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2527    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2530        order = expression.args.get("order")
2531        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2532        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2533        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2534        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2535
2536        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2537
2538        first = expression.args.get("first")
2539        if first is None:
2540            first = ""
2541        else:
2542            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2543
2544        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2545            return f"{this} {alias}"
2546
2547        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2548        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2550    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2551        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2552        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2554    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2556        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2557        end = (
2558            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2559            or "CURRENT ROW"
2560        )
2561        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2563    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2565        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2566        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2568    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2571        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2572        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2574    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2575        return apply_index_offset(
2576            expression.this,
2577            expression.expressions,
2578            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2579        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2581    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2582        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2583        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2584        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2586    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2587        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2589    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2592            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2593                this = self.wrap(this)
2594            return f"ANY{this}"
2595        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2597    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2598        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2600    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2602        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2603
2604        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2605            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2606            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2607
2608        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2609
2610        if default:
2611            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2612
2613        statements.append("END")
2614
2615        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2616            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2617
2618        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2620    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2623        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2625    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2626        order = expression.args.get("order")
2627        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2628        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2630    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2632        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2633        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2635    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2636        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2637
2638        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2639            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2640        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2641            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2642        else:
2643            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2645    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2646        args = expression.expressions
2647        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2648            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2649
2650        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2651            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2652
2653        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2654            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2655
2656        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2658    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2659        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2660
2661        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2662        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2663            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2664
2665        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2667    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2668        return self.func(
2669            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2670        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2672    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2674        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2676    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2677        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2678        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2679        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2680        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2681        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2682        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2683        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2684        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2686    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2688        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2689        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2690        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2692    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2693        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2695    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2696        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2697        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2698        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2700    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2703    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2704        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2705        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2706            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2707
2708        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2710    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2711        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2712            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2713            if not callable(transform):
2714                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2715                return ""
2716
2717            return transform(self, expression)
2718
2719        if isinstance(expression, int):
2720            return str(expression)
2721
2722        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2723            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2724            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2725        else:
2726            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2727            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2728
2729        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2731    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2734    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737
2738        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2739        if unique_keys is not None:
2740            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2741        else:
2742            unique_keys = ""
2743
2744        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2745        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2746        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2747        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2748
2749        return self.func(
2750            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2751            *expression.expressions,
2752            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2753        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2755    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2756        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2758    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2759        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2760        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2761        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2762        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2763        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2764        return self.func(
2765            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2766        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2768    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2771        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2772        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2773        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2774        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2775        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2778            this,
2779            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2780        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2782    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2783        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2784        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2785        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2786
2787        if nested_schema:
2788            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2789
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2792        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2793        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2795    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2796        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2798    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2801        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2802        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2803        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2804        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2805        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2806        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2807        return self.func(
2808            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2809        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2811    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2814        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2815        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2816        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2817        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2819    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2822        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2823        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2824        with_ = (
2825            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2826            if expressions
2827            else ""
2828        )
2829        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2831    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2832        query = expression.args.get("query")
2833        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2834        field = expression.args.get("field")
2835        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2836
2837        if query:
2838            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2839        elif unnest:
2840            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2841        elif field:
2842            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2843        else:
2844            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2845
2846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2848    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2849        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2851    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2852        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2853        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2854            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2855        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2856
2857        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2858            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2859            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2860
2861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2862        if this:
2863            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2864            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2865
2866        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2868    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2869        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2871    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2873        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2874        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2875        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2876        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2877        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2879    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2880        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2882    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2883        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2884        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2886    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2887        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2888        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2889        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2890        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2892    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2893        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2895    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2897        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2900    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2901        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2902        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2903
2904        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2905            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2906        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2907            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2908
2909        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2914    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2917        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2919    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2922        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2924    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2927        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2929    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2930        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2932    def and_sql(
2933        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2934    ) -> str:
2935        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2937    def or_sql(
2938        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2939    ) -> str:
2940        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2942    def xor_sql(
2943        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2944    ) -> str:
2945        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2947    def connector_sql(
2948        self,
2949        expression: exp.Connector,
2950        op: str,
2951        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2952    ) -> str:
2953        if stack is not None:
2954            if expression.expressions:
2955                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2956            else:
2957                stack.append(expression.right)
2958                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2959                    for comment in expression.comments:
2960                        if comment:
2961                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2962                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2963            return op
2964
2965        stack = [expression]
2966        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2967        ops = set()
2968
2969        while stack:
2970            node = stack.pop()
2971            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2972                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2973            else:
2974                sql = self.sql(node)
2975                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2976                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2977                else:
2978                    sqls.append(sql)
2979
2980        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2981        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2983    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2984        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2986    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2987        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2989    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2990        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2992    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2993        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2995    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2998    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2999        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3001    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3002        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3003        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3004        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3005        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3006        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3007        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3008        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3010    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3011        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3014    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3015        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3016            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3017        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3019    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3022    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3025        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3026        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3027        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3028        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3030    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3033        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3034        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3035        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3036        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3037        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3038        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3039        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3041    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3042        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3043        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3044        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3045        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3046
3047        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3048            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3049
3050        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3052    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3053        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3055    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3056        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3057        if chain is not None:
3058            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3059
3060        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3062    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3063        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3064        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3065        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3067    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3069
3070        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3071        if dtype:
3072            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3073            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3074            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3075            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3076            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3077
3078        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3079        if default:
3080            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3081
3082        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3083        if comment:
3084            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3085
3086        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3087        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3088
3089        if not drop and not allow_null:
3090            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3091
3092        if allow_null is not None:
3093            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3094            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3095
3096        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3098    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3100        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3101            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3102        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3104    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3105        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3107        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3108        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3109        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3111    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3112        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3113            # Remove db from tables
3114            expression = expression.transform(
3115                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3116            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3118        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3120    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3121        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3122        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3123        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3124        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3126    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3127        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3128        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3130    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3131        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3132
3133        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3134            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3135        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3136            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3137        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3138            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3139        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3140            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3141        else:
3142            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3143
3144        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3145        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3146        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3147        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3148        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3149        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3150        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3151        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3153    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3154        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3155            return self.expressions(
3156                expression,
3157                key="actions",
3158                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3159                skip_first=True,
3160            )
3161        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3163    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3164        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3165        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3166        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3168    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3169        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3171    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3172        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3173
3174        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3175            case = exp.case()
3176            for arg in expression.expressions:
3177                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3178            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3179
3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3181
3182        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3183        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3184        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3186    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3187        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3189    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3190        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3192    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3193        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3195        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3196        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3198    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3199        return self.sql(
3200            exp.Cast(
3201                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3202                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3203            )
3204        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3206    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3207        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3208            return self.func(
3209                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3210            )
3211        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3213    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3214        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3215
3216        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3217            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3218
3219        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3220            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3221                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3222
3223        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3224            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3225                return self.sql(
3226                    exp.cast(
3227                        l / r,
3228                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3229                    )
3230                )
3231
3232        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3234    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3237    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3240    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3241        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3243    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3246    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3249    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3252    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3255    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3258    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3261    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3264    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3267    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3268        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3269            return self.sql(
3270                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3271            )
3272        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3274    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3277    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3280    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3283    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3286    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3289    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3292    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3295    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3298    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3301    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3304    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3307    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3310    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3311        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3313    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3314        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3315            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3316            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3317
3318        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3320    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3321        this = expression.this
3322        expr = expression.expression
3323
3324        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3325            this, expr = expr, this
3326        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3327            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3328                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3329
3330            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3331
3332        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3334    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3335        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3336        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3338        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3339        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3341    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3342        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3345    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3346        args = []
3347
3348        for key in expression.arg_types:
3349            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3350
3351            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3352                for value in arg_value:
3353                    args.append(value)
3354            elif arg_value is not None:
3355                args.append(arg_value)
3356
3357        if self.normalize_functions:
3358            name = expression.sql_name()
3359        else:
3360            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3361
3362        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3364    def func(
3365        self,
3366        name: str,
3367        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3368        prefix: str = "(",
3369        suffix: str = ")",
3370    ) -> str:
3371        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3373    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3374        arg_sqls = tuple(
3375            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3376        )
3377        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3378            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3379        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3381    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3382        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3384    def format_time(
3385        self,
3386        expression: exp.Expression,
3387        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3388        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3389    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3390        return format_time(
3391            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3392            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3393            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3394        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3396    def expressions(
3397        self,
3398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3399        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3400        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3401        flat: bool = False,
3402        indent: bool = True,
3403        skip_first: bool = False,
3404        skip_last: bool = False,
3405        sep: str = ", ",
3406        prefix: str = "",
3407        dynamic: bool = False,
3408        new_line: bool = False,
3409    ) -> str:
3410        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3411
3412        if not expressions:
3413            return ""
3414
3415        if flat:
3416            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3417
3418        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3419        result_sqls = []
3420
3421        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3422            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3423            if not sql:
3424                continue
3425
3426            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3427
3428            if self.pretty:
3429                if self.leading_comma:
3430                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3431                else:
3432                    result_sqls.append(
3433                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3434                    )
3435            else:
3436                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3437
3438        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3439            if new_line:
3440                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3441                result_sqls.append("")
3442            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3443        else:
3444            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3445        return (
3446            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3447            if indent
3448            else result_sql
3449        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3451    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3452        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3453        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3454        if flat:
3455            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3456        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3458    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3460        if not property_name:
3461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3462        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3464    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3465        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3467    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3468        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3470    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3472        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3473        expressions = (
3474            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3475        )
3476        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3478    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3480        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3481        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3483    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3484        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3486    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3487        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3488        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3489        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3490        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3491
3492        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3493        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3494            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3495            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3496            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3497            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3498        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3499            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3500                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3501            else:
3502                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3503        else:
3504            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3505        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3507    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3508        table = expression.this
3509        table_alias = ""
3510
3511        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3512        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3513            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3514            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3515
3516        this = self.sql(table)
3517        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3518        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3520        sep = self.sep()
3521
3522        return self.prepend_ctes(
3523            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3524        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3526    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3527        if expression.args.get("format"):
3528            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3529
3530        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3532    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3533        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3534            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3535            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3536
3537        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3538        if not fmt:
3539            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3540            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3541
3542        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3544    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3546        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3547        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3548        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3549        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3551    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3553        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3554        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3555        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3557    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3558        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3560    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3561        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3563    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3564        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3565        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3566        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3567        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3568        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3570    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3572        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3573
3574        if having:
3575            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3576
3577        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3579    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3580        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3581        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3582        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3583        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3584        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3585        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3586        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3587        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3588        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3589        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3590        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3591        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3592        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3594    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3595        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3596        if key_block_size:
3597            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3598
3599        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3600        if using:
3601            return f"USING {using}"
3602
3603        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3604        if parser:
3605            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3606
3607        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3608        if comment:
3609            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3610
3611        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3612        if visible is not None:
3613            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3614
3615        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3616        if engine_attr:
3617            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3618
3619        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3620        if secondary_engine_attr:
3621            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3622
3623        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3624        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3626    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3627        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3628        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3630    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3631        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3632        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3635        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3636        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3637        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3638        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3639        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3640        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3641        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3643    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3644        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3645            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3646
3647        case = exp.Case().when(
3648            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3649            expression.args["true"],
3650            copy=False,
3651        )
3652        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3653        if else_cond:
3654            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3655
3656        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3658    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3660        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3661        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3662        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3663        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3664        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3666    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3669    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3670        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3672    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3673        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3674        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3675        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3676        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3677        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3678        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3680    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3683        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3685    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3688        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3690    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3691        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3693    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3694        arg = expression.this
3695        if not arg.type:
3696            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3697
3698            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3699
3700        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3701            return self.sql(arg)
3702
3703        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3704        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3706    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3707        this = expression.this
3708        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3709            return self.sql(this)
3710
3711        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3713    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3714        this = expression.this
3715        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3716            return self.sql(this)
3717
3718        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3720    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3721        this = expression.this
3722        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3723
3724        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3725            return self.sql(
3726                exp.cast(
3727                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3728                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3729                )
3730            )
3731
3732        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3733            return self.sql(this)
3734
3735        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3737    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3738        return self.sql(
3739            exp.func(
3740                "DATEDIFF",
3741                expression.this,
3742                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3743                "day",
3744            )
3745        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3747    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3748        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3749            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3750
3751        unit = expression.text("unit")
3752        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3753            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3754
3755        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3757    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3758        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3759
3760        return self.func(
3761            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3762        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3764    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3765        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3766            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3767            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3768            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3769            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3770
3771        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3772
3773        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3774        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3775            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3776
3777        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3779    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3780        expression.set(
3781            "expressions",
3782            [
3783                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3784                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3785                else e
3786                for e in expression.expressions
3787            ],
3788        )
3789
3790        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3792    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3793        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3794        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3795
3796        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3798    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3799        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3800        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3801
3802        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3803
3804        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3805        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3806
3807        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3808        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3809
3810        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3811        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3812
3813        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3814        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3815
3816        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3820    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3821        to = expression.this
3822        value = expression.expression
3823        style = expression.args.get("style")
3824        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3825        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3826
3827        if not to or not value:
3828            return ""
3829
3830        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3831        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3832            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3833
3834        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3835        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3836
3837        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3838        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3839            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3840
3841            style_value = style.name
3842            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3843            if not converted_style:
3844                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3845
3846            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3847
3848            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3849                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3850            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3851                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3852            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3853                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3854            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3855                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3856
3857        if not transformed:
3858            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3859
3860        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3916    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3917        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3918
3919        if expression.expressions:
3920            upper = option.upper()
3921
3922            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3923            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3924
3925            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3926            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3927            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3928            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3929
3930        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3931
3932        if not value:
3933            return option
3934
3935        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3936
3937        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3939    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3940        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3941        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3942            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3943            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3944            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3945        else:
3946            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3947            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3948            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3949
3950        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3951        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3952
3953        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3954        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3955
3956        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3957        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3958
3959        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3960        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3961
3962        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3964    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3966        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3967
3968        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3969        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3970        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3971        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3972
3973        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3974        params = self.expressions(
3975            expression,
3976            key="params",
3977            sep=sep,
3978            new_line=True,
3979            skip_last=True,
3980            skip_first=True,
3981            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3982        )
3983
3984        if params:
3985            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3986                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3987            elif not self.pretty:
3988                params = f" {params}"
3989
3990        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3992    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3993        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3995    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3996        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3997        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3998        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3999        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4000        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4001
4002        if filter_col or retention_period:
4003            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4004
4005        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4007    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4008        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4009    ) -> str:
4010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4012        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4013        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4015    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4017        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4018        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4020    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4021        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4023    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4025        expr = expression.expression
4026
4027        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4028            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4029            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4030        else:
4031            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4032
4033        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4035    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4036        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4037            return self.sql(expression.this)
4038
4039        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4041    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4042        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4043        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4044
4045        if lower and upper:
4046            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4047        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4049    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4050        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4051        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4052        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4053        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4054        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4055        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4056
4057        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4059    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4060        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4061
4062        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4063        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4064            fill_pattern = "' '"
4065
4066        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4068    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4069        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4070        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4072    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4073        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4074
4075        parent = expression.parent
4076        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4077            parent = parent.parent
4078
4079        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4080            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4081
4082        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4083            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4084
4085        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4087    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4088        exprs = expression.expressions
4089        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4090            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4091        else:
4092            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4093
4094        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4096    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4097        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4098            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4099
4100        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4101        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4102        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4103
4104        if source_tz and timestamp:
4105            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4106                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4107            )
4108
4109        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4110
4111        return self.sql(expr)