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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 205        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 207    }
 208
 209    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 210    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 211    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 212    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 213
 214    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 215    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 216    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 217
 218    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 219    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 222    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 223
 224    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 225    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 226
 227    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 228    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 229
 230    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 231    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 232
 233    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 234    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 235
 236    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 237    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 240    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 241
 242    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 243    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 244
 245    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 246    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 247
 248    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 249    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 250
 251    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 252    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 253
 254    # Whether join hints should be generated
 255    JOIN_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether table hints should be generated
 258    TABLE_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # Whether query hints should be generated
 261    QUERY_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 264    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 265
 266    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 267    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 268
 269    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 270    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 271
 272    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 273    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 274
 275    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 276    RETURNING_END = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 279    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 280
 281    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 282    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 283
 284    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 285    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 286
 287    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 288    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 289
 290    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 291    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 292    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 293    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 294
 295    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 296    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 297
 298    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 299    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 300
 301    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 302    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 303
 304    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 305    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 306
 307    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 308    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 309
 310    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 311    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 312
 313    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 314    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 315
 316    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 317    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 318
 319    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 320    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 321
 322    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 323    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 324
 325    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 327
 328    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 329    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 330
 331    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 332    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 333
 334    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 335    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 336
 337    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 338    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 339
 340    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 341    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 342
 343    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 344    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 345
 346    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 347    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 348
 349    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 350    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 351
 352    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 353    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 354
 355    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 356    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 357
 358    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 359    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 360
 361    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 362    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 363
 364    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 365    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 366
 367    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 368    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 369
 370    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 371    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 372    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 373
 374    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 375    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 376
 377    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 379
 380    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 381    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 382
 383    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 384    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 385
 386    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 387    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 388
 389    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 390    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 391
 392    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 393    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 394    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 395    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 396
 397    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 398    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 399
 400    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 401    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 402
 403    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 404    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 405
 406    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 407    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 408
 409    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 410    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 411
 412    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 413    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 414
 415    # The HEX function name
 416    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 417
 418    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 419    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 420
 421    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 422    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 423
 424    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 425    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 426
 427    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 428    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 429
 430    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 431    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 432
 433    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 434    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 435
 436    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 437    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 438
 439    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 440    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 441
 442    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 443    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 444
 445    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 446    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 447
 448    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 449    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 450    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 451    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 452    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 453
 454    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 455        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 456        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 465    }
 466
 467    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 468        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 469        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 470        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 471        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 472        "DAYS": "DAY",
 473        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 474        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 475        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 476        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 477    }
 478
 479    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 480        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 481        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 482        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 483        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 484            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 485            if e.args.get("windows")
 486            else ""
 487        ),
 488        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 489    }
 490
 491    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 492
 493    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 494
 495    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 496    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 497
 498    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 499        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 505        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 507        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 514        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 525        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 526        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 527        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 528        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 530        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 534        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 535        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 540        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 541        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 544        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 546        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 549        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 552        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 567        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 568        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 571        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 573        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 575        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 580        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 582        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 583        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 584        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587    }
 588
 589    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 590    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 591
 592    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 593    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 594        exp.Command,
 595        exp.Create,
 596        exp.Delete,
 597        exp.Drop,
 598        exp.From,
 599        exp.Insert,
 600        exp.Join,
 601        exp.MultitableInserts,
 602        exp.Select,
 603        exp.SetOperation,
 604        exp.Update,
 605        exp.Where,
 606        exp.With,
 607    )
 608
 609    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 610    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 611        exp.Binary,
 612        exp.SetOperation,
 613    )
 614
 615    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 616    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 617        exp.Column,
 618        exp.Literal,
 619        exp.Neg,
 620        exp.Paren,
 621    )
 622
 623    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 624        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 625        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 626        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 627        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 628    }
 629
 630    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 631    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 632
 633    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 634
 635    __slots__ = (
 636        "pretty",
 637        "identify",
 638        "normalize",
 639        "pad",
 640        "_indent",
 641        "normalize_functions",
 642        "unsupported_level",
 643        "max_unsupported",
 644        "leading_comma",
 645        "max_text_width",
 646        "comments",
 647        "dialect",
 648        "unsupported_messages",
 649        "_escaped_quote_end",
 650        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 651        "_next_name",
 652        "_identifier_start",
 653        "_identifier_end",
 654    )
 655
 656    def __init__(
 657        self,
 658        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 659        identify: str | bool = False,
 660        normalize: bool = False,
 661        pad: int = 2,
 662        indent: int = 2,
 663        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 664        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 665        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 666        leading_comma: bool = False,
 667        max_text_width: int = 80,
 668        comments: bool = True,
 669        dialect: DialectType = None,
 670    ):
 671        import sqlglot
 672        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 673
 674        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 675        self.identify = identify
 676        self.normalize = normalize
 677        self.pad = pad
 678        self._indent = indent
 679        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 680        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 681        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 682        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 683        self.comments = comments
 684        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 685
 686        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 687        self.normalize_functions = (
 688            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 689        )
 690
 691        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 692        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 693            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 694        )
 695        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 696
 697        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 698
 699        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 700        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 701
 702    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 703        """
 704        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 705
 706        Args:
 707            expression: The syntax tree.
 708            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 709                it is safer to copy.
 710
 711        Returns:
 712            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 713        """
 714        if copy:
 715            expression = expression.copy()
 716
 717        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 718
 719        self.unsupported_messages = []
 720        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 721
 722        if self.pretty:
 723            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 724
 725        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 726            return sql
 727
 728        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 729            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 730                logger.warning(msg)
 731        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 732            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 733
 734        return sql
 735
 736    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 737        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 738        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 739
 740        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 741            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 742
 743            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 744
 745        return expression
 746
 747    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 748        if (
 749            not expression.parent
 750            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 751            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 752        ):
 753            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 754
 755            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 756        return expression
 757
 758    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 759        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 760            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 761        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 762
 763    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 764        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 765
 766    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 767        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 768
 769    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 770        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 771        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 772        return comment
 773
 774    def maybe_comment(
 775        self,
 776        sql: str,
 777        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 778        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 779        separated: bool = False,
 780    ) -> str:
 781        comments = (
 782            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 783            if self.comments
 784            else None
 785        )
 786
 787        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 788            return sql
 789
 790        comments_sql = " ".join(
 791            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 792        )
 793
 794        if not comments_sql:
 795            return sql
 796
 797        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 798
 799        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 800            return (
 801                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 802                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 803                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 804            )
 805
 806        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 807
 808    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 809        this_sql = (
 810            self.sql(expression)
 811            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 812            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        )
 814        if not this_sql:
 815            return "()"
 816
 817        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 818        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 819
 820    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 821        original = self.identify
 822        self.identify = False
 823        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 824        self.identify = original
 825        return result
 826
 827    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 828        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 829            return name.upper()
 830        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 831            return name.lower()
 832        return name
 833
 834    def indent(
 835        self,
 836        sql: str,
 837        level: int = 0,
 838        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 839        skip_first: bool = False,
 840        skip_last: bool = False,
 841    ) -> str:
 842        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 843            return sql
 844
 845        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 846        lines = sql.split("\n")
 847
 848        return "\n".join(
 849            (
 850                line
 851                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 852                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 853            )
 854            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 855        )
 856
 857    def sql(
 858        self,
 859        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 860        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 861        comment: bool = True,
 862    ) -> str:
 863        if not expression:
 864            return ""
 865
 866        if isinstance(expression, str):
 867            return expression
 868
 869        if key:
 870            value = expression.args.get(key)
 871            if value:
 872                return self.sql(value)
 873            return ""
 874
 875        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 876
 877        if callable(transform):
 878            sql = transform(self, expression)
 879        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 880            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 881
 882            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 883                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 884            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 885                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 886            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 887                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 888            else:
 889                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 890        else:
 891            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 892
 893        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 894
 895    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 896        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 898        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 899
 900    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 901        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 902        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        options = expression.args.get("options")
 904        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 905        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 906        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 907        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 908        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 909
 910    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 911        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 912            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 913        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 914        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 915
 916    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 917        return ".".join(
 918            self.sql(part)
 919            for part in (
 920                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 921                expression.args.get("db"),
 922                expression.args.get("table"),
 923                expression.args.get("this"),
 924            )
 925            if part
 926        )
 927
 928    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 929        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 930
 931        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 932            join_mark = ""
 933            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 934
 935        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 936
 937    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 940        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 941        return f"{position}{this}"
 942
 943    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 944        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 946        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 947        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 948        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 949        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 950        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 951        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 952
 953        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 954            kind = ""
 955
 956        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 957
 958    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 961        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 962
 963    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 966            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 967        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 968            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 969        else:
 970            persisted = ""
 971        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 972
 973    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 974        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 975
 976    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 977        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 978            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 979        else:
 980            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 981
 982        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 983
 984    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 985        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 986    ) -> str:
 987        this = ""
 988        if expression.this is not None:
 989            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 990            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 991
 992        start = expression.args.get("start")
 993        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 994        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 995        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 996        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 997        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 998        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 999        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1000        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1001        cycle_sql = ""
1002
1003        if cycle is not None:
1004            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1005            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1006
1007        sequence_opts = ""
1008        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1009            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1010            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1011
1012        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1013        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1014
1015        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1016
1017    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1018        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1019    ) -> str:
1020        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1021        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1022        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1023
1024    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1025        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1026    ) -> str:
1027        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1028
1029    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1030        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1031
1032    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1033        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1034
1035    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1036        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1037        if desc is not None:
1038            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1039        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1040
1041    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1043        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1044        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1045        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1046        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1047        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1048        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1049        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1050
1051    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1052        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1053
1054    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1055        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1056        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1057        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1058        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1059
1060        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1061
1062        properties_sql = ""
1063        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1064            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1065        ):
1066            properties_sql = self.sql(
1067                exp.Properties(
1068                    expressions=[
1069                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1070                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1071                    ]
1072                )
1073            )
1074
1075            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1076                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1077            elif not self.pretty:
1078                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1079                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1080
1081        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1082        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1083
1084        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1085        if expression_sql:
1086            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1087
1088            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1089                postalias_props_sql = ""
1090                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1091                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1092                        exp.Properties(
1093                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1094                        ),
1095                        wrapped=False,
1096                    )
1097                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1098                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1099
1100        postindex_props_sql = ""
1101        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1102            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1103                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1104                wrapped=False,
1105                prefix=" ",
1106            )
1107
1108        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1109        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1110        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1111
1112        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1113        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1114        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1115
1116        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1117        if clustered is None:
1118            clustered_sql = ""
1119        elif clustered:
1120            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1121        else:
1122            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1123
1124        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1125        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1126            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1127                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1128                sep=" ",
1129                prefix=" ",
1130                wrapped=False,
1131            )
1132
1133        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1134
1135        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1136        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1137            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1138                exp.Properties(
1139                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1140                ),
1141                sep=" ",
1142                prefix=" ",
1143                wrapped=False,
1144            )
1145
1146        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1147        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1148        no_schema_binding = (
1149            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1150        )
1151
1152        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1153        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1154
1155        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1156        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1157
1158    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1159        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1160        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1161        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1162        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1163        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1164        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1165        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1166        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1167        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1168        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1169
1170        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1171        if cache is None:
1172            cache_str = ""
1173        elif cache is True:
1174            cache_str = " CACHE"
1175        else:
1176            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1177
1178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1179        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1180
1181        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1182
1183    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1186        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1187        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1188
1189    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1190        style = expression.args.get("style")
1191        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1192        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1193        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1194        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1195
1196    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1197        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1198        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1199
1200    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1201        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1202        if with_:
1203            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1204        return sql
1205
1206    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1207        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1208        recursive = (
1209            "RECURSIVE "
1210            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1211            else ""
1212        )
1213
1214        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1215
1216    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1217        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1218        if alias:
1219            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1220
1221        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1222
1223        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1224        if materialized is False:
1225            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1226        elif materialized:
1227            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1228
1229        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1230
1231    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1232        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1234        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1235
1236        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1237            columns = ""
1238            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1239
1240        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1241            alias = self._next_name()
1242
1243        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1244
1245    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1248            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1249        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1250
1251    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1254            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1255        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1256
1257    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1260            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1261        return this
1262
1263    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1266
1267        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1268            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1269            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1270        else:
1271            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1272            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1273
1274        if escape:
1275            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1276            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1277        else:
1278            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1279            escape_sql = ""
1280
1281        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1282            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1283
1284        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1285
1286    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1287        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1288        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1289
1290    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1291        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1292        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1293        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1294        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1295
1296    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1297        nested = ""
1298        values = ""
1299        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1300
1301        type_value = expression.this
1302        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1303            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1304        else:
1305            type_sql = (
1306                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1307                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1308                else type_value
1309            )
1310
1311        if interior:
1312            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1313                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1314                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1315                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1316                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1317                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1318            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1319                nested = f" {interior}"
1320            else:
1321                nested = f"({interior})"
1322
1323        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1324        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1325            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1326            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1327        ):
1328            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1329
1330        return type_sql
1331
1332    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1333        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1334        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1335        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1336        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1337
1338    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1341        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1342        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1343        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1344        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1347        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1348        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1349        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1350        if self.RETURNING_END:
1351            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1352        else:
1353            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1355
1356    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1359        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1360        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1361        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1362        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1363        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1364        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1365        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1366        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1367        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1368        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1369        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1370        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1371        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1372
1373    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1374        op_type = type(expression)
1375        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1376
1377        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1378        if (
1379            distinct is False
1380            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1381            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1382        ):
1383            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1384
1385        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1386
1387        if distinct is None:
1388            distinct = default_distinct
1389            if distinct is None:
1390                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1391
1392        if distinct is default_distinct:
1393            kind = ""
1394        else:
1395            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1396
1397        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1398        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1399
1400    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1401        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1402            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1403            order = expression.args.get("order")
1404
1405            if limit or order:
1406                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1407                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1408                )
1409
1410                if limit:
1411                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1412                if order:
1413                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1414                return self.sql(select)
1415
1416        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1417        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1418
1419        while stack:
1420            node = stack.pop()
1421
1422            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1423                stack.append(node.expression)
1424                stack.append(
1425                    self.maybe_comment(
1426                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1427                    )
1428                )
1429                stack.append(node.this)
1430            else:
1431                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1432
1433        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1434        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1435        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1436
1437    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1438        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1439        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1440        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1441        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1442        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1443            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1444        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1445        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1446
1447    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1448        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1449            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1450            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1451            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1452
1453        agg = expression.this
1454        agg_arg = agg.this
1455        cond = expression.expression.this
1456        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1457        return self.sql(agg)
1458
1459    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1460        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1461            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1462            return ""
1463
1464        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1465
1466    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1467        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1468        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1469        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1470        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1471        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1472        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1473        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1474        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1475        if include:
1476            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1477        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1478        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1479        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1480        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1481        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1482        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1483
1484        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1485
1486    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1487        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1488        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1489        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1490        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1492        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1493        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1494
1495        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1496
1497        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1498        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1499
1500    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1501        text = expression.name
1502        lower = text.lower()
1503        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1504        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1505        if (
1506            expression.quoted
1507            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1508            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1509            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1510        ):
1511            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1512        return text
1513
1514    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1515        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1516        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1517            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1518
1519        return text
1520
1521    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1522        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1523        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1524            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1525        return text
1526
1527    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1528        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1529        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1530        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1531        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1532        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1533
1534    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1535        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1536        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1537
1538    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1539        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1540
1541    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1542        root_properties = []
1543        with_properties = []
1544
1545        for p in expression.expressions:
1546            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1547            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1548                with_properties.append(p)
1549            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1550                root_properties.append(p)
1551
1552        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1553        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1554
1555        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1556            with_props = " " + with_props
1557
1558        return root_props + with_props
1559
1560    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1561        if properties.expressions:
1562            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1563        return ""
1564
1565    def properties(
1566        self,
1567        properties: exp.Properties,
1568        prefix: str = "",
1569        sep: str = ", ",
1570        suffix: str = "",
1571        wrapped: bool = True,
1572    ) -> str:
1573        if properties.expressions:
1574            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1575            if expressions:
1576                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1577                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1578        return ""
1579
1580    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1581        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1582
1583    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1584        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1585        for p in properties.expressions:
1586            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1587            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1588                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1589            else:
1590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1591
1592        return properties_locs
1593
1594    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1595        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1596            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1598
1599    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1600        property_cls = expression.__class__
1601        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1602            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1603
1604        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1605        if not property_name:
1606            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1607
1608        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1609
1610    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1611        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1612            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1613            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1614
1615            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1616            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1617                like = f"({like})"
1618
1619            return like
1620
1621        if expression.expressions:
1622            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1623
1624        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1625        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1626
1627    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1628        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1629        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1630        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1631
1632    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1633        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1634        local = expression.args.get("local")
1635        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1636        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1637        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1638        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1639        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1640
1641    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1642        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1643        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1644        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1645
1646    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1647        if expression.args.get("default"):
1648            property = "DEFAULT"
1649        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1650            property = "ON"
1651        else:
1652            property = "OFF"
1653        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1654
1655    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1656        if expression.args.get("no"):
1657            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1658        if expression.args.get("default"):
1659            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1660
1661        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1662        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1663
1664    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1665        default = expression.args.get("default")
1666        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1667        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1668        if default or minimum or maximum:
1669            if default:
1670                prop = "DEFAULT"
1671            elif minimum:
1672                prop = "MINIMUM"
1673            else:
1674                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1675            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1676        units = expression.args.get("units")
1677        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1678        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1679
1680    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1681        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1682        always = expression.args.get("always")
1683        default = expression.args.get("default")
1684        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1685        never = expression.args.get("never")
1686
1687        if autotemp is not None:
1688            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1689        elif always:
1690            prop = "ALWAYS"
1691        elif default:
1692            prop = "DEFAULT"
1693        elif manual:
1694            prop = "MANUAL"
1695        elif never:
1696            prop = "NEVER"
1697        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1698
1699    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1700        no = expression.args.get("no")
1701        no = " NO" if no else ""
1702        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1703        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1704        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1705        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1706        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1707
1708    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1709        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1710            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1711        if expression.this:
1712            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1713            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1714            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1715
1716        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1717        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1718        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1719
1720    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1722
1723        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1724        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1725            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1726        else:
1727            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1728
1729        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1730
1731    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1732        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1733        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1734        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1735        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1736        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1737        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1738        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1739
1740    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1741        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1742        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1743        statistics_sql = ""
1744        if statistics is not None:
1745            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1746        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1747
1748    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1751        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1752        data_consistency = (
1753            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1754        )
1755        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1756        retention_period = (
1757            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1758        )
1759
1760        if this:
1761            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1762        else:
1763            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1764
1765        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1766
1767        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1768
1769    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1770        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1771        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1772
1773        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1774            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1775        else:
1776            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1777
1778        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1779        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1780        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1781        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1782        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1783        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1784        if is_function:
1785            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1786        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1787
1788        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1789        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1790        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1791        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1792        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1793        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1794        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1795        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1796
1797        if self.RETURNING_END:
1798            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1799        else:
1800            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1801
1802        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1803        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1804        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1805        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1806
1807        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1808        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1809
1810        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1811        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1812
1813    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1815
1816    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1818        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1820        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1821        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1822
1823    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1824        return expression.name
1825
1826    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1827        return expression.name
1828
1829    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1830        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1831
1832        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1833        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1834
1835        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1836        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1837        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1838
1839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1840        if expressions:
1841            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1842            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1843
1844        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1845
1846    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1847        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1848
1849    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1850        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1851        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1852        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1853        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1854        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1855        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1856        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1857        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1858        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1859        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1860        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1861        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1862        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1863
1864    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1865        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1866
1867    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1868        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1869        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1870        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1871        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1872
1873    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1876        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1877        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1878
1879    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1880        return ".".join(
1881            self.sql(part)
1882            for part in (
1883                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1884                expression.args.get("db"),
1885                expression.args.get("this"),
1886            )
1887            if part is not None
1888        )
1889
1890    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1891        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1892        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1893        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1894        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1895        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1896        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1897        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1898        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1899
1900        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1901        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1902            sample_pre_alias = sample
1903            sample_post_alias = ""
1904        else:
1905            sample_pre_alias = ""
1906            sample_post_alias = sample
1907
1908        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1909        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1910        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1911        joins = self.indent(
1912            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1913        )
1914        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1915
1916        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1917        if file_format:
1918            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1919            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1920            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1921
1922        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1923        if ordinality:
1924            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1925            alias = ""
1926
1927        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1928        if when:
1929            table = f"{table} {when}"
1930
1931        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1932        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1933
1934        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1935        if rows_from:
1936            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1937
1938        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1939
1940    def tablesample_sql(
1941        self,
1942        expression: exp.TableSample,
1943        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1944    ) -> str:
1945        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1946        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1947        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1948        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1949        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1950        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1951        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1952        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1953        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1954
1955        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1956        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1957            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1958
1959        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1960        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1961            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1962
1963        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1964        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1965            expr = f"({expr})"
1966
1967        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1968
1969    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1970        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1971
1972        if expression.this:
1973            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1974            if not expressions:
1975                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1976
1977            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1978            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1979            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1980            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1981            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1982
1983        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1984        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1985        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1986
1987        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1988
1989        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1990        if include_nulls is not None:
1991            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1992        else:
1993            nulls = ""
1994
1995        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1996        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1997        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1998
1999    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2000        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2001        kind = expression.text("kind")
2002        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2003        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2004
2005    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2006        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2007
2008    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2010        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2011        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2012        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2013        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2014        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2015        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2016        if self.RETURNING_END:
2017            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2018        else:
2019            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2020        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2021        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2022
2023    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2024        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2025
2026        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2027        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2028            args = self.expressions(expression)
2029            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2030            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2031            values = (
2032                f"({values})"
2033                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2034                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2035                else values
2036            )
2037            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2038
2039        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2040        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2041        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2042
2043        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2044
2045        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2046            row = tup.expressions
2047
2048            if i == 0 and column_names:
2049                row = [
2050                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2051                ]
2052
2053            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2054
2055        if self.pretty:
2056            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2057            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2058            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2059            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2060            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2061
2062        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2063        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2064        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2065
2066    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2067        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2068
2069    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2070    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2071        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2072        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2073        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2074
2075    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2076        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2077
2078    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2079        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2080        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2081
2082    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2084        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2085
2086    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2087        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2088        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2089
2090    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2091        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2092        if group_by_all is True:
2093            modifier = " ALL"
2094        elif group_by_all is False:
2095            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2096        else:
2097            modifier = ""
2098
2099        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2100
2101        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2102        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2103        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2104
2105        groupings = csv(
2106            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2107            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2108            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2109            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2110            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2111        )
2112
2113        if (
2114            expression.expressions
2115            and groupings
2116            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2117        ):
2118            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2119
2120        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2121
2122    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2123        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2124        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2125
2126    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2127        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2128        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2129        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2130        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2131        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2132        return start + connect
2133
2134    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2135        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2136
2137    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2138        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2139            side = None
2140        else:
2141            side = expression.side
2142
2143        op_sql = " ".join(
2144            op
2145            for op in (
2146                expression.method,
2147                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2148                side,
2149                expression.kind,
2150                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2151            )
2152            if op
2153        )
2154        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2155        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2156        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2157        using = expression.args.get("using")
2158
2159        if not on_sql and using:
2160            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2161
2162        this = expression.this
2163        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2164
2165        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2166        if exprs:
2167            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2168
2169        if on_sql:
2170            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2171            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2172            if using:
2173                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2174            else:
2175                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2176        elif not op_sql:
2177            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2178                return f" {this_sql}"
2179
2180            return f", {this_sql}"
2181
2182        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2183            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2184
2185        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2186
2187    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2188        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2189        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2190        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2191
2192    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2193        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2194
2195        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2196        if cross_apply is True:
2197            op = "INNER JOIN "
2198        elif cross_apply is False:
2199            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2200        else:
2201            op = ""
2202
2203        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2204
2205    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207
2208        if expression.args.get("view"):
2209            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2210            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2211            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2212            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2213            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2214            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2215
2216        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2217        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2218        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2219
2220    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222
2223        args = [
2224            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2225            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2226            if e
2227        ]
2228
2229        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2230        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2232        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2233
2234        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2235
2236    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2238        value = expression.expression
2239        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2240        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2241        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2242        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2243
2244    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2245        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2246        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2249        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2250        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2251        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2252        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2253
2254    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2255        expressions = (
2256            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2257        )
2258        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2259        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2260
2261    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2262        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2263
2264    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2265        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2266            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2267            return ""
2268
2269        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2270        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2271        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2272        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2273
2274        if wait is not None:
2275            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2276                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2277            else:
2278                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2279
2280        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2281
2282    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2283        text = expression.this or ""
2284        if expression.is_string:
2285            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2286        return text
2287
2288    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2289        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2290            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2291            text = "".join(
2292                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2293            )
2294
2295        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2296            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2297        )
2298
2299    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2300        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2301        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2302        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2303        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2304        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2305        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2306        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2307        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2308        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2309        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2310        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2311
2312    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2313        return "NULL"
2314
2315    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2316        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2317
2318    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2320        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2321        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2322        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2323
2324    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2325        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2326        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2327        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2328        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2329        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2330        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2331        interpolated_values = [
2332            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2333            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2334            else self.sql(e, "this")
2335            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2336        ]
2337        interpolate = (
2338            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2339        )
2340        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2341
2342    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2343        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2344
2345    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2346        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2347
2348    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2349        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2350
2351    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2352        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2353        asc = not desc
2354
2355        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2356        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2357        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2358        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2359        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2360
2361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2362
2363        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2364        nulls_sort_change = ""
2365        if nulls_first and (
2366            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2367        ):
2368            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2369        elif (
2370            nulls_last
2371            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2372            and not nulls_are_last
2373        ):
2374            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2375
2376        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2377        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2378            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2379            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2380                self.unsupported(
2381                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2382                )
2383                nulls_sort_change = ""
2384            elif (
2385                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2386                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2387                and (
2388                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2389                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2390                )
2391            ):
2392                self.unsupported(
2393                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2394                )
2395                nulls_sort_change = ""
2396            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2397                if expression.this.is_int:
2398                    self.unsupported(
2399                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2400                    )
2401                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2402                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2403                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2404                nulls_sort_change = ""
2405
2406        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2407        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2408
2409        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2410
2411    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2412        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2413        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2414
2415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2416
2417        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2418
2419    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2420        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2421        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2422        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2423        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2424        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2425        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2426        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2427        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2428        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2429        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2430        definition_sqls = [
2431            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2432            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2433        ]
2434        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2435        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2436        body = "".join(
2437            (
2438                partition,
2439                order,
2440                measures,
2441                rows,
2442                after,
2443                pattern,
2444                define,
2445            )
2446        )
2447        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2448        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2449        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2450
2451    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2452        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2453
2454        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2455            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2456        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2457            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2458
2459        return csv(
2460            *sqls,
2461            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2462            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2463            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2464            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2465            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2466            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2467            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2468            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2469            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2470            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2471            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2472            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2473            self.options_modifier(expression),
2474            sep="",
2475        )
2476
2477    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2478        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2479        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2480
2481    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2482        return ""
2483
2484    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2485        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2486    ) -> t.List[str]:
2487        return [
2488            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2489            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2490        ]
2491
2492    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2493        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2494        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2495        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2496
2497    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2498        into = expression.args.get("into")
2499        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2500            into.pop()
2501
2502        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2503        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2504        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2505        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2506
2507        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2508        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2509            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2510            limit.pop()
2511        else:
2512            top = ""
2513
2514        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2515
2516        if kind:
2517            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2518                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2519            else:
2520                if kind == "STRUCT":
2521                    expressions = self.expressions(
2522                        sqls=[
2523                            self.sql(
2524                                exp.Struct(
2525                                    expressions=[
2526                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2527                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2528                                        else e
2529                                        for e in expression.expressions
2530                                    ]
2531                                )
2532                            )
2533                        ]
2534                    )
2535                kind = ""
2536
2537        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2538        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2539
2540        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2541        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2542        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2543        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2544        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2545            expression,
2546            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2547            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2548            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2549        )
2550
2551        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2552        if expression.args.get("with"):
2553            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2554            expression.pop_comments()
2555
2556        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2557
2558        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2559            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2560                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2561            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2562                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2563            else:
2564                table_kind = ""
2565            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2566
2567        return sql
2568
2569    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2572        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2573
2574    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2575        if expression.expressions:
2576            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2577        return ""
2578
2579    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2580        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2581        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2582        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2583        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2584        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2585        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2586        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2587
2588    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2591
2592    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2594        kind = expression.text("kind")
2595        if kind:
2596            kind = f"{kind}."
2597        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2598
2599    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2600        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2601
2602    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2603        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2604        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2605        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2606        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2607            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2608
2609            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2610            expression.set("sample", None)
2611
2612        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2613        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2614        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2615
2616    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2617        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2618        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2619
2620    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2621        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2622
2623        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2624        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2625
2626        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2627            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2628                alias.append("columns", offset)
2629
2630        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2631            columns = alias.columns
2632            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2633        else:
2634            alias = self.sql(alias)
2635
2636        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2637        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2638            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2639        else:
2640            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2641                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2642            elif offset:
2643                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2644            else:
2645                suffix = alias
2646
2647        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2648
2649    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2650        return ""
2651
2652    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2653        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2654        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2655
2656    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2659        order = expression.args.get("order")
2660        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2661        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2663        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2664
2665        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2666
2667        first = expression.args.get("first")
2668        if first is None:
2669            first = ""
2670        else:
2671            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2672
2673        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2674            return f"{this} {alias}"
2675
2676        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2677        return f"{this} ({args})"
2678
2679    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2680        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2681        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2682
2683    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2685        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2686        end = (
2687            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2688            or "CURRENT ROW"
2689        )
2690        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2691
2692    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2695        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2696
2697    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2699        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2700        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2701        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2702
2703    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2704        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2705    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2706        return apply_index_offset(
2707            expression.this,
2708            expression.expressions,
2709            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2710        )
2711
2712    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2713        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2714        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2715        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2716
2717    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2718        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2719
2720    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2722        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2723            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2724                this = self.wrap(this)
2725            return f"ANY{this}"
2726        return f"ANY {this}"
2727
2728    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2729        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2730
2731    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2734
2735        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2736            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2737            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2738
2739        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2740
2741        if default:
2742            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2743
2744        statements.append("END")
2745
2746        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2747            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2748
2749        return " ".join(statements)
2750
2751    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2753        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2754        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2755
2756    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2757        order = expression.args.get("order")
2758        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2759        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2760
2761    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2762        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2763        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2764        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2765
2766    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2767        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2768
2769        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2770            func_name = "LTRIM"
2771        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2772            func_name = "RTRIM"
2773        else:
2774            func_name = "TRIM"
2775
2776        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2777
2778    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2779        args = expression.expressions
2780        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2781            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2782
2783        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2784            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2785
2786        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2787            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2788
2789        return args
2790
2791    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2792        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2793
2794        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2795        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2796            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2797
2798        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2799
2800    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2801        return self.func(
2802            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2803        )
2804
2805    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2807        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2808
2809    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2811        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2812        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2813        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2814        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2815        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2816        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2817        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2818
2819    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2820        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2821        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2822        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2823        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2824
2825    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2826        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2827
2828    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2829        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2830        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2831        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2832
2833    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2835
2836    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2837        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2838
2839        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2840            path = self.escape_str(path)
2841
2842        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2843            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2844
2845        return path
2846
2847    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2848        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2849            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2850            if not callable(transform):
2851                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2852                return ""
2853
2854            return transform(self, expression)
2855
2856        if isinstance(expression, int):
2857            return str(expression)
2858
2859        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2860            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2861            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2862        else:
2863            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2864            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2865
2866        return escaped
2867
2868    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2869        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2870
2871    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2872        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2873        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2874
2875        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2876        if unique_keys is not None:
2877            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2878        else:
2879            unique_keys = ""
2880
2881        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2882        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2883        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2884        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2885
2886        return self.func(
2887            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2888            *expression.expressions,
2889            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2890        )
2891
2892    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2893        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2894
2895    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2896        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2897        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2898        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2899        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2900        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2901        return self.func(
2902            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2903        )
2904
2905    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2907        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2908        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2909        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2910        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2911        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2912        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2913        return self.func(
2914            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2915            this,
2916            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2917        )
2918
2919    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2920        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2921        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2922        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2923
2924        if nested_schema:
2925            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2926
2927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2929        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2930        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2931
2932    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2933        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2934
2935    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2937        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2938        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2939        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2940        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2941        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2942        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2943        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2944        return self.func(
2945            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2946        )
2947
2948    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2950        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2951        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2952        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2953        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2954        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2955
2956    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2959        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2960        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2961        with_ = (
2962            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2963            if expressions
2964            else ""
2965        )
2966        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2967
2968    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2969        query = expression.args.get("query")
2970        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2971        field = expression.args.get("field")
2972        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2973
2974        if query:
2975            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2976        elif unnest:
2977            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2978        elif field:
2979            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2980        else:
2981            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2982
2983        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2984
2985    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2986        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2987
2988    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2989        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2990        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2991            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2992        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2993
2994        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2995            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2996            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2997
2998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2999        if this:
3000            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3001            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3002
3003        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3004
3005    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3006        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3007
3008    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3010        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3011        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3012        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3013        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3014        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3015
3016    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3017        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3018        parent = expression.parent
3019        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3020        return self.func(
3021            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3022        )
3023
3024    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3025        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3026        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3027
3028    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3029        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3030        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3032        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3033
3034    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3035        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3036
3037    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3038        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3039        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3040        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3041
3042    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3043        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3044
3045        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3046        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3047
3048        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3049            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3050        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3051            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3052
3053        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3054
3055    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3056        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3057
3058    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3061        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3062
3063    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3065        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3066        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3067
3068    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3070        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3071        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3072
3073    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3075
3076    def and_sql(
3077        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3078    ) -> str:
3079        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3080
3081    def or_sql(
3082        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3083    ) -> str:
3084        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3085
3086    def xor_sql(
3087        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3088    ) -> str:
3089        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3090
3091    def connector_sql(
3092        self,
3093        expression: exp.Connector,
3094        op: str,
3095        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3096    ) -> str:
3097        if stack is not None:
3098            if expression.expressions:
3099                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3100            else:
3101                stack.append(expression.right)
3102                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3103                    for comment in expression.comments:
3104                        if comment:
3105                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3106                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3107            return op
3108
3109        stack = [expression]
3110        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3111        ops = set()
3112
3113        while stack:
3114            node = stack.pop()
3115            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3116                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3117            else:
3118                sql = self.sql(node)
3119                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3120                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3121                else:
3122                    sqls.append(sql)
3123
3124        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3125        return sep.join(sqls)
3126
3127    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3129
3130    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3132
3133    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3134        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3135
3136    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3138
3139    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3141
3142    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3144
3145    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3146        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3147        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3148        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3149        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3150        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3151        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3152        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3153
3154    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3155        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3157
3158    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3159        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3160            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3161        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3162
3163    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3164        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3165
3166    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3168        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3169        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3170        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3171        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3172        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3173
3174    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3176        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3177        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3178        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3179        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3180        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3181        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3182        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3183        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3184
3185    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3186        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3187        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3188        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3189        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3190
3191        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3192            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3193
3194        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3195
3196    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3197        return "BEGIN"
3198
3199    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3200        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3201        if chain is not None:
3202            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3203
3204        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3205
3206    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3207        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3208        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3209        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3210
3211    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3213
3214        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3215        if dtype:
3216            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3217            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3218            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3219            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3220            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3221
3222        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3223        if default:
3224            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3225
3226        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3227        if comment:
3228            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3229
3230        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3231        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3232
3233        if not drop and not allow_null:
3234            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3235
3236        if allow_null is not None:
3237            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3238            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3239
3240        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3241
3242    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3244        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3245            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3246        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3247
3248    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3249        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3251        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3252        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3253        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3254
3255    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3256        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3257            # Remove db from tables
3258            expression = expression.transform(
3259                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3260            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3262        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3263
3264    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3265        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3266        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3267        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3268        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3269
3270    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3271        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3272        return f"SET {exprs}"
3273
3274    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3275        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3276
3277        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3278            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3279        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3280            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3281        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3282            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3283        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3284            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3285        else:
3286            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3287
3288        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3289        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3290        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3291        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3292        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3293        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3295        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3296
3297        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3298
3299    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3300        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3301            return self.expressions(
3302                expression,
3303                key="actions",
3304                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3305                skip_first=True,
3306            )
3307        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3308
3309    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3310        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3311        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3312        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3313
3314    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3315        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3316
3317    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3318        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3319
3320        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3321            case = exp.case()
3322            for arg in expression.expressions:
3323                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3324            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3325
3326        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3327
3328        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3329        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3330        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3331
3332    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3333        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3334
3335    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3336        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3337
3338    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3339        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3340        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3341        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3342        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3343
3344    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3345        return self.sql(
3346            exp.Cast(
3347                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3348                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3349            )
3350        )
3351
3352    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3353        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3354            return self.func(
3355                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3356            )
3357        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3358
3359    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3360        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3361
3362        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3363            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3364
3365        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3366            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3367                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3368
3369        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3370            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3371                return self.sql(
3372                    exp.cast(
3373                        l / r,
3374                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3375                    )
3376                )
3377
3378        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3379
3380    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3381        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3382
3383    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3385
3386    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3387        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3388
3389    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3390        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3391
3392    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3394
3395    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3397
3398    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3400
3401    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3403
3404    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3406
3407    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3409
3410    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3412
3413    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3414        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3415            return self.sql(
3416                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3417            )
3418        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3419
3420    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3421        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3422
3423    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3425
3426    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3428
3429    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3431
3432    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3434
3435    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3437
3438    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3440
3441    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3443
3444    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3446
3447    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3449
3450    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3452
3453    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3455
3456    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3457        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3458
3459    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3460        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3461            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3462            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3463
3464        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3465
3466    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3467        this = expression.this
3468        expr = expression.expression
3469
3470        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3471            this, expr = expr, this
3472        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3473            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3474                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3475
3476            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3477
3478        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3479
3480    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3481        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3482        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3484        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3485        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3486
3487    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3488        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3489        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3490        binary_type = type(expression)
3491
3492        while stack:
3493            node = stack.pop()
3494
3495            if type(node) is binary_type:
3496                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3497                if op_func:
3498                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3499
3500                stack.append(node.right)
3501                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3502                stack.append(node.left)
3503            else:
3504                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3505
3506        return "".join(sqls)
3507
3508    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3509        args = []
3510
3511        for key in expression.arg_types:
3512            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3513
3514            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3515                for value in arg_value:
3516                    args.append(value)
3517            elif arg_value is not None:
3518                args.append(arg_value)
3519
3520        if self.normalize_functions:
3521            name = expression.sql_name()
3522        else:
3523            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3524
3525        return self.func(name, *args)
3526
3527    def func(
3528        self,
3529        name: str,
3530        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3531        prefix: str = "(",
3532        suffix: str = ")",
3533        normalize: bool = True,
3534    ) -> str:
3535        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3536        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3537
3538    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3539        arg_sqls = tuple(
3540            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3541        )
3542        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3543            return self.indent(
3544                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3545            )
3546        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3547
3548    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3549        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3550
3551    def format_time(
3552        self,
3553        expression: exp.Expression,
3554        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3555        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3556    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3557        return format_time(
3558            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3559            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3560            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3561        )
3562
3563    def expressions(
3564        self,
3565        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3566        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3567        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3568        flat: bool = False,
3569        indent: bool = True,
3570        skip_first: bool = False,
3571        skip_last: bool = False,
3572        sep: str = ", ",
3573        prefix: str = "",
3574        dynamic: bool = False,
3575        new_line: bool = False,
3576    ) -> str:
3577        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3578
3579        if not expressions:
3580            return ""
3581
3582        if flat:
3583            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3584
3585        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3586        result_sqls = []
3587
3588        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3589            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3590            if not sql:
3591                continue
3592
3593            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3594
3595            if self.pretty:
3596                if self.leading_comma:
3597                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3598                else:
3599                    result_sqls.append(
3600                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3601                    )
3602            else:
3603                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3604
3605        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3606            if new_line:
3607                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3608                result_sqls.append("")
3609            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3610        else:
3611            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3612
3613        return (
3614            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3615            if indent
3616            else result_sql
3617        )
3618
3619    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3620        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3621        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3622        if flat:
3623            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3624        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3625
3626    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3627        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3628        if not property_name:
3629            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3630        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3631
3632    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3633        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3634
3635    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3636        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3637
3638    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3640        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3641        expressions = (
3642            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3643        )
3644        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3645
3646    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3649        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3650
3651    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3652        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3653
3654    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3655        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3656        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3657        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3658        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3659
3660        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3661        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3662            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3663            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3664            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3665            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3666        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3667            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3668                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3669            else:
3670                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3671        else:
3672            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3673        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3674
3675    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3676        table = expression.this
3677        table_alias = ""
3678
3679        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3680        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3681            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3682            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3683
3684        this = self.sql(table)
3685        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3686        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3688        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3689        if returning:
3690            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3691
3692        sep = self.sep()
3693
3694        return self.prepend_ctes(
3695            expression,
3696            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3697        )
3698
3699    @unsupported_args("format")
3700    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3701        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3702
3703    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3704        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3705            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3706            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3707
3708        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3709        if not fmt:
3710            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3711            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3712
3713        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3714
3715    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3717        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3718        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3719        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3720        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3721
3722    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3724        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3725        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3726        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3727
3728    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3729        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3730
3731    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3732        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3733
3734    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3735    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3737        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3738        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3740        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3741        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3742        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3743
3744    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3745        return ""
3746
3747    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3749        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3750        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3751        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3752        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3753
3754    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3756        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3757
3758        if having:
3759            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3760
3761        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3762
3763    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3764        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3765        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3766        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3767        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3768        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3769        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3770        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3771        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3772        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3773        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3774        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3775        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3776        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3777
3778    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3779        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3780        if key_block_size:
3781            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3782
3783        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3784        if using:
3785            return f"USING {using}"
3786
3787        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3788        if parser:
3789            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3790
3791        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3792        if comment:
3793            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3794
3795        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3796        if visible is not None:
3797            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3798
3799        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3800        if engine_attr:
3801            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3802
3803        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3804        if secondary_engine_attr:
3805            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3806
3807        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3808        return ""
3809
3810    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3811        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3812        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3813
3814    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3816        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3818        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3819        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3820        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3822        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3823        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3824        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3825        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3826
3827    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3828        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3829            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3830
3831        case = exp.Case().when(
3832            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3833            expression.args["true"],
3834            copy=False,
3835        )
3836        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3837        if else_cond:
3838            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3839
3840        return self.sql(case)
3841
3842    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3844        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3845        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3846        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3847        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3848        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3849
3850    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3852
3853    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3854        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3855
3856    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3857        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3858        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3859        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3860        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3861        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3862        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3863
3864    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3866        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3867        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3868
3869    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3871        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3872        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3873
3874    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3875        arg = expression.this
3876        if not arg.type:
3877            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3878
3879            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3880
3881        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3882            return self.sql(arg)
3883
3884        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3885        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3886
3887    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3888        this = expression.this
3889        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3890            return self.sql(this)
3891
3892        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3893
3894    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3895        this = expression.this
3896        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3897            return self.sql(this)
3898
3899        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3900
3901    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3902        this = expression.this
3903        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3904
3905        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3906            return self.sql(
3907                exp.cast(
3908                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3909                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3910                )
3911            )
3912
3913        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3914            return self.sql(this)
3915
3916        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3917
3918    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3919        return self.sql(
3920            exp.func(
3921                "DATEDIFF",
3922                expression.this,
3923                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3924                "day",
3925            )
3926        )
3927
3928    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3929        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3930            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3931
3932        unit = expression.text("unit")
3933        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3934            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3935
3936        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3937
3938    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3939        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3940
3941        return self.func(
3942            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3943        )
3944
3945    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3946        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3947            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3948            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3949            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3950            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3951
3952        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3953
3954        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3955        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3956            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3957
3958        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3959
3960    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3961        expression.set(
3962            "expressions",
3963            [
3964                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3965                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3966                else e
3967                for e in expression.expressions
3968            ],
3969        )
3970
3971        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3972
3973    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3974        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3976
3977        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3978
3979    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3980        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3981        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3982
3983        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3984
3985        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3986        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3987
3988        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3989        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3990
3991        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3992        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3993
3994        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3995        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3996
3997        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3998
3999    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4000    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4001    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4002        to = expression.this
4003        value = expression.expression
4004        style = expression.args.get("style")
4005        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4006        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4007
4008        if not to or not value:
4009            return ""
4010
4011        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4012        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4013            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4014
4015        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4016        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4017
4018        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4019        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4020            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4021
4022            style_value = style.name
4023            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4024            if not converted_style:
4025                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4026
4027            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4028
4029            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4030                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4031            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4032                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4033            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4034                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4035            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4036                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4037
4038        if not transformed:
4039            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4040
4041        return self.sql(transformed)
4042
4043    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4044        this = expression.this
4045        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4046            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4047            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4048
4049        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4050            return f".{this}"
4051
4052        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4053        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4054
4055    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4056        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4057        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4058
4059    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4060        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4061            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4062
4063            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4064
4065        return expression
4066
4067    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4068        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4069            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4070            mods = sorted(
4071                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4072                key=lambda x: 0
4073                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4074                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4075            )
4076
4077            if mods:
4078                mod = mods[0]
4079                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4080                this.meta["inline"] = True
4081                mod.this.replace(this)
4082                return self.sql(expression.this)
4083
4084            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4085
4086            if agg_func:
4087                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4088
4089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4090
4091    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4092        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4093        if self.pretty:
4094            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4095        return string
4096
4097    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4098        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4099
4100        if expression.expressions:
4101            upper = option.upper()
4102
4103            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4104            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4105
4106            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4107            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4108            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4109            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4110
4111        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4112
4113        if not value:
4114            return option
4115
4116        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4117
4118        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4119
4120    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4121        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4122        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4123            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4124            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4125            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4126        else:
4127            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4128            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4129            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4130
4131        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4132        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4133
4134        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4135        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4136
4137        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4138        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4139
4140        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4141        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4142
4143        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4144
4145    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4147        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4148
4149        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4150        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4151        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4152        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4153
4154        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4155        params = self.expressions(
4156            expression,
4157            key="params",
4158            sep=sep,
4159            new_line=True,
4160            skip_last=True,
4161            skip_first=True,
4162            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4163        )
4164
4165        if params:
4166            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4167                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4168            elif not self.pretty:
4169                params = f" {params}"
4170
4171        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4172
4173    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4174        return ""
4175
4176    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4177        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4178        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4179        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4180        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4181        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4182
4183        if filter_col or retention_period:
4184            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4185
4186        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4187
4188    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4189        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4190    ) -> str:
4191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4192        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4193        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4194        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4195
4196    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4198        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4199        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4200
4201    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4202        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4203
4204    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4206        expr = expression.expression
4207
4208        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4209            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4210            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4211        else:
4212            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4213
4214        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4215
4216    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4217        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4218            return self.sql(expression.this)
4219
4220        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4221
4222    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4223        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4224        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4225
4226        if lower and upper:
4227            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4228        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4229
4230    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4231        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4232        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4233        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4234        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4235        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4236        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4237
4238        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4239
4240    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4241        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4242
4243        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4244        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4245            fill_pattern = "' '"
4246
4247        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4248
4249    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4250        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4251        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4252
4253    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4254        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4255
4256        parent = expression.parent
4257        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4258            parent = parent.parent
4259
4260        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4261            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4262
4263        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4264            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4265
4266        return self.sql(generate_series)
4267
4268    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4269        exprs = expression.expressions
4270        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4271            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4272        else:
4273            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4274
4275        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4276
4277    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4278        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4279            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4280
4281        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4282        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4283        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4284
4285        if source_tz and timestamp:
4286            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4287                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4288            )
4289
4290        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4291
4292        return self.sql(expr)
4293
4294    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4296        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4297
4298        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4299
4300        if _with is None:
4301            with_sql = ""
4302        elif not _with:
4303            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4304        else:
4305            with_sql = " WITH"
4306
4307        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4308
4309        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4310
4311    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4312        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4313            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4314
4315        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4316        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4317        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4318
4319        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4320        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4321
4322        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4323
4324    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4325        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4326        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4327        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4328        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4329        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4330
4331    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4332        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4333        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4334        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4335        return res
4336
4337    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4338        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4339        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4340        empty = (
4341            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4342            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4343            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4344        )
4345
4346        error = expression.args.get("error")
4347        error = (
4348            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4349            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4350            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4351        )
4352
4353        if error and empty:
4354            error = (
4355                f"{empty} {error}"
4356                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4357                else f"{error} {empty}"
4358            )
4359            empty = ""
4360
4361        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4362
4363        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4364
4365    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4367        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4368
4369        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4370        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4371
4372        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4373        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4374
4375        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4376
4377        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4378
4379    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4380        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4381
4382        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4383        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4384        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4385            parent = expression.parent
4386            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4387                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4388                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4389            else:
4390                this = expression.this
4391                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4392                if this.find(exp.Column):
4393                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4394                    this_sql = (
4395                        self.expressions(this)
4396                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4397                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4398                    )
4399
4400                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4401
4402        return array_agg
4403
4404    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4406        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4407
4408        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4409
4410    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4411        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4412
4413        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4414        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4415
4416        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4417        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4418
4419        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4420
4421        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4422
4423        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4424
4425    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4427        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4428        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4429
4430        return f"{this}{columns}"
4431
4432    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4434
4435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4436        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4437
4438        return f"{kind}{this}"
4439
4440    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4441        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4442        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4443            func = f"*{func}"
4444
4445        return func
4446
4447    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4449        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4450        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4451        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4452        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4453
4454        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4455
4456    @unsupported_args("format")
4457    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4458        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4459
4460    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4461        this = expression.this
4462        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4463
4464        if zone:
4465            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4466            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4467            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4468            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4469                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4470            )
4471
4472        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4473
4474    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4475        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4476            return self.sql(
4477                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4478            )
4479
4480        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4481
4482    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4483        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4484        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4485        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4486        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4487
4488    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4489        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4490            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4491
4492        start_ts = exp.cast(
4493            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4494        )
4495
4496        return self.sql(
4497            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4498        )
4499
4500    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4501        dim = expression.expression
4502
4503        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4504        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4505            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4506                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4507            dim = None
4508
4509        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4510        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4511            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4512
4513        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 191        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 208    }
 209
 210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 214
 215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 218
 219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 224
 225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 227
 228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 230
 231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 233
 234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 236
 237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 242
 243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 245
 246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 248
 249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 251
 252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 254
 255    # Whether join hints should be generated
 256    JOIN_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether table hints should be generated
 259    TABLE_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # Whether query hints should be generated
 262    QUERY_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 266
 267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 269
 270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 272
 273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 275
 276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 277    RETURNING_END = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 281
 282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 284
 285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 287
 288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 290
 291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 295
 296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 298
 299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 301
 302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 307
 308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 310
 311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 313
 314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 316
 317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 319
 320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 322
 323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 325
 326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 328
 329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 331
 332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 334
 335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 337
 338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 340
 341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 343
 344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 346
 347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 349
 350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 355
 356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 358
 359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 361
 362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 364
 365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 367
 368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 370
 371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 374
 375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 377
 378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 380
 381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 383
 384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 386
 387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 389
 390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 392
 393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 397
 398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 400
 401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 403
 404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 406
 407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 409
 410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 412
 413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 415
 416    # The HEX function name
 417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 418
 419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 421
 422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 424
 425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 427
 428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 430
 431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 433
 434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 436
 437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 439
 440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 442
 443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 445
 446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 448
 449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 454
 455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 456        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 466    }
 467
 468    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 469        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 470        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 471        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 472        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 473        "DAYS": "DAY",
 474        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 475        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 476        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 477        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 478    }
 479
 480    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 481        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 482        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 483        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 484        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 485            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 486            if e.args.get("windows")
 487            else ""
 488        ),
 489        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 490    }
 491
 492    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 493
 494    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 495
 496    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 497    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 498
 499    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 500        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 506        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 520        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 528        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 529        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 530        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 535        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 536        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 541        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 544        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 545        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 547        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 550        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 553        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 568        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 569        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 572        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 574        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 576        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 581        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 584        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 585        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588    }
 589
 590    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 591    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 592
 593    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 594    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 595        exp.Command,
 596        exp.Create,
 597        exp.Delete,
 598        exp.Drop,
 599        exp.From,
 600        exp.Insert,
 601        exp.Join,
 602        exp.MultitableInserts,
 603        exp.Select,
 604        exp.SetOperation,
 605        exp.Update,
 606        exp.Where,
 607        exp.With,
 608    )
 609
 610    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 611    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 612        exp.Binary,
 613        exp.SetOperation,
 614    )
 615
 616    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 617    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 618        exp.Column,
 619        exp.Literal,
 620        exp.Neg,
 621        exp.Paren,
 622    )
 623
 624    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 625        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 626        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 627        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 628        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 629    }
 630
 631    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 632    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 633
 634    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 635
 636    __slots__ = (
 637        "pretty",
 638        "identify",
 639        "normalize",
 640        "pad",
 641        "_indent",
 642        "normalize_functions",
 643        "unsupported_level",
 644        "max_unsupported",
 645        "leading_comma",
 646        "max_text_width",
 647        "comments",
 648        "dialect",
 649        "unsupported_messages",
 650        "_escaped_quote_end",
 651        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 652        "_next_name",
 653        "_identifier_start",
 654        "_identifier_end",
 655    )
 656
 657    def __init__(
 658        self,
 659        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 660        identify: str | bool = False,
 661        normalize: bool = False,
 662        pad: int = 2,
 663        indent: int = 2,
 664        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 665        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 666        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 667        leading_comma: bool = False,
 668        max_text_width: int = 80,
 669        comments: bool = True,
 670        dialect: DialectType = None,
 671    ):
 672        import sqlglot
 673        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 674
 675        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 676        self.identify = identify
 677        self.normalize = normalize
 678        self.pad = pad
 679        self._indent = indent
 680        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 681        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 682        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 683        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 684        self.comments = comments
 685        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 686
 687        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 688        self.normalize_functions = (
 689            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 690        )
 691
 692        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 693        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 694            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 695        )
 696        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 697
 698        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 699
 700        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 701        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 702
 703    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 704        """
 705        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 706
 707        Args:
 708            expression: The syntax tree.
 709            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 710                it is safer to copy.
 711
 712        Returns:
 713            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 714        """
 715        if copy:
 716            expression = expression.copy()
 717
 718        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 719
 720        self.unsupported_messages = []
 721        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 722
 723        if self.pretty:
 724            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 725
 726        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 727            return sql
 728
 729        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 730            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 731                logger.warning(msg)
 732        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 733            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 734
 735        return sql
 736
 737    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 738        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 739        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 740
 741        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 742            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 743
 744            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 745
 746        return expression
 747
 748    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 749        if (
 750            not expression.parent
 751            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 752            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 753        ):
 754            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 755
 756            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 757        return expression
 758
 759    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 760        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 761            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 762        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 763
 764    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 765        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 766
 767    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 768        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 769
 770    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 771        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 772        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 773        return comment
 774
 775    def maybe_comment(
 776        self,
 777        sql: str,
 778        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 779        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 780        separated: bool = False,
 781    ) -> str:
 782        comments = (
 783            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 784            if self.comments
 785            else None
 786        )
 787
 788        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 789            return sql
 790
 791        comments_sql = " ".join(
 792            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 793        )
 794
 795        if not comments_sql:
 796            return sql
 797
 798        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 799
 800        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 801            return (
 802                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 803                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 804                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 805            )
 806
 807        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 808
 809    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 810        this_sql = (
 811            self.sql(expression)
 812            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 813            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        )
 815        if not this_sql:
 816            return "()"
 817
 818        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 819        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 820
 821    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 822        original = self.identify
 823        self.identify = False
 824        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 825        self.identify = original
 826        return result
 827
 828    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 829        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 830            return name.upper()
 831        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 832            return name.lower()
 833        return name
 834
 835    def indent(
 836        self,
 837        sql: str,
 838        level: int = 0,
 839        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 840        skip_first: bool = False,
 841        skip_last: bool = False,
 842    ) -> str:
 843        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 844            return sql
 845
 846        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 847        lines = sql.split("\n")
 848
 849        return "\n".join(
 850            (
 851                line
 852                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 853                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 854            )
 855            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 856        )
 857
 858    def sql(
 859        self,
 860        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 861        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 862        comment: bool = True,
 863    ) -> str:
 864        if not expression:
 865            return ""
 866
 867        if isinstance(expression, str):
 868            return expression
 869
 870        if key:
 871            value = expression.args.get(key)
 872            if value:
 873                return self.sql(value)
 874            return ""
 875
 876        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 877
 878        if callable(transform):
 879            sql = transform(self, expression)
 880        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 881            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 882
 883            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 884                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 885            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 886                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 887            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 888                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 889            else:
 890                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 891        else:
 892            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 893
 894        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 895
 896    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 897        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 899        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 900
 901    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 902        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 903        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        options = expression.args.get("options")
 905        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 906        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 907        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 908        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 909        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 910
 911    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 912        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 913            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 914        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 915        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 916
 917    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 918        return ".".join(
 919            self.sql(part)
 920            for part in (
 921                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 922                expression.args.get("db"),
 923                expression.args.get("table"),
 924                expression.args.get("this"),
 925            )
 926            if part
 927        )
 928
 929    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 930        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 931
 932        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 933            join_mark = ""
 934            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 935
 936        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 937
 938    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 940        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 941        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 942        return f"{position}{this}"
 943
 944    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 945        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 947        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 948        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 949        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 950        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 951        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 952        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 953
 954        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 955            kind = ""
 956
 957        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 958
 959    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 961        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 962        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 963
 964    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 967            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 968        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 969            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 970        else:
 971            persisted = ""
 972        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 973
 974    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 975        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 976
 977    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 978        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 979            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 980        else:
 981            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 982
 983        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 984
 985    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 986        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 987    ) -> str:
 988        this = ""
 989        if expression.this is not None:
 990            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 991            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 992
 993        start = expression.args.get("start")
 994        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 995        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 996        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 997        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 998        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 999        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1000        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1001        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1002        cycle_sql = ""
1003
1004        if cycle is not None:
1005            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1006            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1007
1008        sequence_opts = ""
1009        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1010            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1011            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1012
1013        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1015
1016        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1017
1018    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1019        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1020    ) -> str:
1021        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1022        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1023        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1024
1025    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1026        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1027    ) -> str:
1028        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1029
1030    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1031        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1032
1033    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1034        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1035
1036    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1037        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1038        if desc is not None:
1039            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1040        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1041
1042    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1045        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1046        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1047        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1048        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1049        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1050        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1051
1052    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1053        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1054
1055    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1056        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1057        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1058        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1059        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1060
1061        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1062
1063        properties_sql = ""
1064        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1065            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1066        ):
1067            properties_sql = self.sql(
1068                exp.Properties(
1069                    expressions=[
1070                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1071                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1072                    ]
1073                )
1074            )
1075
1076            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1077                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1078            elif not self.pretty:
1079                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1080                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1081
1082        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1083        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1084
1085        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1086        if expression_sql:
1087            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1088
1089            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1090                postalias_props_sql = ""
1091                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1092                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1093                        exp.Properties(
1094                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1095                        ),
1096                        wrapped=False,
1097                    )
1098                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1099                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1100
1101        postindex_props_sql = ""
1102        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1103            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1104                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1105                wrapped=False,
1106                prefix=" ",
1107            )
1108
1109        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1110        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1111        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1112
1113        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1114        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1115        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1116
1117        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1118        if clustered is None:
1119            clustered_sql = ""
1120        elif clustered:
1121            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1122        else:
1123            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1124
1125        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1126        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1127            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1128                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1129                sep=" ",
1130                prefix=" ",
1131                wrapped=False,
1132            )
1133
1134        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1135
1136        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1137        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1138            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1139                exp.Properties(
1140                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1141                ),
1142                sep=" ",
1143                prefix=" ",
1144                wrapped=False,
1145            )
1146
1147        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1148        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1149        no_schema_binding = (
1150            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1151        )
1152
1153        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1154        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1155
1156        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1157        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1158
1159    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1160        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1161        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1162        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1163        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1164        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1165        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1166        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1167        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1168        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1169        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1170
1171        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1172        if cache is None:
1173            cache_str = ""
1174        elif cache is True:
1175            cache_str = " CACHE"
1176        else:
1177            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1178
1179        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1180        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1181
1182        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1183
1184    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1187        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1188        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1189
1190    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1191        style = expression.args.get("style")
1192        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1193        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1194        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1195        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1196
1197    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1198        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1199        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1200
1201    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1202        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1203        if with_:
1204            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1205        return sql
1206
1207    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1208        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1209        recursive = (
1210            "RECURSIVE "
1211            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1212            else ""
1213        )
1214
1215        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1216
1217    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1218        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1219        if alias:
1220            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1221
1222        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1223
1224        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1225        if materialized is False:
1226            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1227        elif materialized:
1228            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1229
1230        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1231
1232    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1233        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1235        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1236
1237        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1238            columns = ""
1239            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1240
1241        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1242            alias = self._next_name()
1243
1244        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1245
1246    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1249            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1250        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1251
1252    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1255            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1256        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1257
1258    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1260        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1261            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1262        return this
1263
1264    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1267
1268        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1269            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1270            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1271        else:
1272            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1273            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1274
1275        if escape:
1276            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1277            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1278        else:
1279            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1280            escape_sql = ""
1281
1282        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1283            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1284
1285        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1286
1287    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1288        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1289        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1290
1291    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1293        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1294        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1295        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1296
1297    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1298        nested = ""
1299        values = ""
1300        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1301
1302        type_value = expression.this
1303        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1304            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1305        else:
1306            type_sql = (
1307                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1308                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1309                else type_value
1310            )
1311
1312        if interior:
1313            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1314                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1315                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1316                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1317                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1318                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1319            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1320                nested = f" {interior}"
1321            else:
1322                nested = f"({interior})"
1323
1324        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1325        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1326            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1327            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1328        ):
1329            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1330
1331        return type_sql
1332
1333    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1334        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1335        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1336        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1337        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1338
1339    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1342        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1343        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1344        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1345        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1346        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1347        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1348        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1349        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1350        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1356
1357    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1360        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1361        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1362        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1363        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1364        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1365        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1366        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1367        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1368        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1369        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1370        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1371        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1372        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1373
1374    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1375        op_type = type(expression)
1376        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1377
1378        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1379        if (
1380            distinct is False
1381            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1382            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1383        ):
1384            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1385
1386        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1387
1388        if distinct is None:
1389            distinct = default_distinct
1390            if distinct is None:
1391                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1392
1393        if distinct is default_distinct:
1394            kind = ""
1395        else:
1396            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1397
1398        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1399        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1400
1401    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1402        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1403            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1404            order = expression.args.get("order")
1405
1406            if limit or order:
1407                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1408                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1409                )
1410
1411                if limit:
1412                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1413                if order:
1414                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1415                return self.sql(select)
1416
1417        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1418        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1419
1420        while stack:
1421            node = stack.pop()
1422
1423            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1424                stack.append(node.expression)
1425                stack.append(
1426                    self.maybe_comment(
1427                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1428                    )
1429                )
1430                stack.append(node.this)
1431            else:
1432                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1433
1434        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1435        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1436        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1437
1438    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1439        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1440        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1441        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1442        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1443        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1444            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1445        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1446        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1447
1448    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1449        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1450            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1452            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1453
1454        agg = expression.this
1455        agg_arg = agg.this
1456        cond = expression.expression.this
1457        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1458        return self.sql(agg)
1459
1460    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1461        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1462            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1463            return ""
1464
1465        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1466
1467    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1468        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1469        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1470        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1471        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1472        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1473        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1474        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1475        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1476        if include:
1477            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1478        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1479        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1480        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1481        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1482        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1483        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1484
1485        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1486
1487    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1488        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1489        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1490        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1491        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1492        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1493        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1494        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1495
1496        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1497
1498        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1499        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1500
1501    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1502        text = expression.name
1503        lower = text.lower()
1504        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1505        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1506        if (
1507            expression.quoted
1508            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1509            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1510            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1511        ):
1512            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1513        return text
1514
1515    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1516        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1517        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1518            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1519
1520        return text
1521
1522    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1523        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1524        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1525            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1526        return text
1527
1528    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1529        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1530        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1531        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1532        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1533        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1534
1535    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1536        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1537        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1538
1539    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1540        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1541
1542    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1543        root_properties = []
1544        with_properties = []
1545
1546        for p in expression.expressions:
1547            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1548            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1549                with_properties.append(p)
1550            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1551                root_properties.append(p)
1552
1553        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1554        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1555
1556        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1557            with_props = " " + with_props
1558
1559        return root_props + with_props
1560
1561    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1562        if properties.expressions:
1563            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1564        return ""
1565
1566    def properties(
1567        self,
1568        properties: exp.Properties,
1569        prefix: str = "",
1570        sep: str = ", ",
1571        suffix: str = "",
1572        wrapped: bool = True,
1573    ) -> str:
1574        if properties.expressions:
1575            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1576            if expressions:
1577                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1578                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1579        return ""
1580
1581    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1582        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1583
1584    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1585        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1586        for p in properties.expressions:
1587            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1588            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1589                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1590            else:
1591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1592
1593        return properties_locs
1594
1595    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1596        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1597            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1598        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1599
1600    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1601        property_cls = expression.__class__
1602        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1603            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1604
1605        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1606        if not property_name:
1607            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1608
1609        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1610
1611    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1612        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1613            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1614            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1615
1616            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1617            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1618                like = f"({like})"
1619
1620            return like
1621
1622        if expression.expressions:
1623            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1624
1625        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1626        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1627
1628    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1629        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1630        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1631        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1632
1633    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1634        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1635        local = expression.args.get("local")
1636        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1637        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1638        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1639        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1640        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1641
1642    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1643        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1645        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1646
1647    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1648        if expression.args.get("default"):
1649            property = "DEFAULT"
1650        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1651            property = "ON"
1652        else:
1653            property = "OFF"
1654        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1655
1656    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1657        if expression.args.get("no"):
1658            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1659        if expression.args.get("default"):
1660            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1661
1662        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1663        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1664
1665    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1666        default = expression.args.get("default")
1667        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1668        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1669        if default or minimum or maximum:
1670            if default:
1671                prop = "DEFAULT"
1672            elif minimum:
1673                prop = "MINIMUM"
1674            else:
1675                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1676            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1677        units = expression.args.get("units")
1678        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1679        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1680
1681    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1682        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1683        always = expression.args.get("always")
1684        default = expression.args.get("default")
1685        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1686        never = expression.args.get("never")
1687
1688        if autotemp is not None:
1689            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1690        elif always:
1691            prop = "ALWAYS"
1692        elif default:
1693            prop = "DEFAULT"
1694        elif manual:
1695            prop = "MANUAL"
1696        elif never:
1697            prop = "NEVER"
1698        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1699
1700    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1701        no = expression.args.get("no")
1702        no = " NO" if no else ""
1703        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1704        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1705        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1706        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1707        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1708
1709    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1710        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1711            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1712        if expression.this:
1713            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1715            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1716
1717        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1718        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1719        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1720
1721    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723
1724        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1725        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1726            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1727        else:
1728            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1729
1730        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1731
1732    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1733        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1734        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1735        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1736        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1737        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1738        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1739        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1740
1741    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1742        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1743        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1744        statistics_sql = ""
1745        if statistics is not None:
1746            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1747        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1748
1749    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1751        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1752        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1753        data_consistency = (
1754            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1755        )
1756        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1757        retention_period = (
1758            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1759        )
1760
1761        if this:
1762            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1763        else:
1764            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1765
1766        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1767
1768        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1769
1770    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1771        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1772        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1773
1774        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1775            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1776        else:
1777            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1778
1779        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1780        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1781        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1782        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1783        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1784        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1785        if is_function:
1786            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1787        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1788
1789        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1790        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1791        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1792        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1793        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1794        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1795        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1796        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1797
1798        if self.RETURNING_END:
1799            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1800        else:
1801            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1802
1803        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1804        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1805        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1806        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1807
1808        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1809        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1810
1811        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1812        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1813
1814    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1816
1817    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1819        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1822        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1823
1824    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1825        return expression.name
1826
1827    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1828        return expression.name
1829
1830    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1831        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1832
1833        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1834        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1835
1836        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1837        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1838        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1839
1840        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1841        if expressions:
1842            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1843            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1844
1845        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1846
1847    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1848        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1849
1850    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1851        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1852        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1853        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1854        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1855        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1856        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1857        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1858        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1859        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1860        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1861        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1862        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1863        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1864
1865    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1866        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1867
1868    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1869        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1870        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1871        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1872        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1873
1874    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1877        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1878        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1879
1880    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1881        return ".".join(
1882            self.sql(part)
1883            for part in (
1884                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1885                expression.args.get("db"),
1886                expression.args.get("this"),
1887            )
1888            if part is not None
1889        )
1890
1891    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1892        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1893        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1894        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1895        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1896        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1897        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1898        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1899        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1900
1901        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1902        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1903            sample_pre_alias = sample
1904            sample_post_alias = ""
1905        else:
1906            sample_pre_alias = ""
1907            sample_post_alias = sample
1908
1909        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1910        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1911        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1912        joins = self.indent(
1913            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1914        )
1915        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1916
1917        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1918        if file_format:
1919            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1920            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1921            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1922
1923        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1924        if ordinality:
1925            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1926            alias = ""
1927
1928        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1929        if when:
1930            table = f"{table} {when}"
1931
1932        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1933        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1934
1935        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1936        if rows_from:
1937            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1938
1939        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1940
1941    def tablesample_sql(
1942        self,
1943        expression: exp.TableSample,
1944        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1945    ) -> str:
1946        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1947        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1948        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1949        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1950        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1951        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1952        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1953        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1954        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1955
1956        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1957        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1958            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1959
1960        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1961        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1962            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1963
1964        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1965        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1966            expr = f"({expr})"
1967
1968        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1969
1970    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972
1973        if expression.this:
1974            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975            if not expressions:
1976                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1977
1978            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1979            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1980            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1981            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1982            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1983
1984        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1985        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1986        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1987
1988        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1989
1990        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1991        if include_nulls is not None:
1992            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1993        else:
1994            nulls = ""
1995
1996        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1997        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1998        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1999
2000    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2001        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2002        kind = expression.text("kind")
2003        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2004        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2005
2006    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2007        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2008
2009    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2012        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2013        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2014        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2015        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2016        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2017        if self.RETURNING_END:
2018            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2019        else:
2020            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2021        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2023
2024    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2025        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2026
2027        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2028        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2029            args = self.expressions(expression)
2030            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2031            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2032            values = (
2033                f"({values})"
2034                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2035                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2036                else values
2037            )
2038            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2039
2040        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2041        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2042        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2043
2044        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2045
2046        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2047            row = tup.expressions
2048
2049            if i == 0 and column_names:
2050                row = [
2051                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2052                ]
2053
2054            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2055
2056        if self.pretty:
2057            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2058            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2059            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2060            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2061            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2062
2063        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2064        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2065        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2066
2067    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2068        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2069
2070    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2071    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2072        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2073        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2074        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2075
2076    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2077        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2078
2079    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2081        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2082
2083    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2085        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2086
2087    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2088        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2089        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2090
2091    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2092        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2093        if group_by_all is True:
2094            modifier = " ALL"
2095        elif group_by_all is False:
2096            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2097        else:
2098            modifier = ""
2099
2100        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2101
2102        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2103        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2104        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2105
2106        groupings = csv(
2107            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2108            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2109            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2110            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2111            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2112        )
2113
2114        if (
2115            expression.expressions
2116            and groupings
2117            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2118        ):
2119            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2120
2121        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2122
2123    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2124        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2125        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2126
2127    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2128        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2129        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2130        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2131        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2132        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2133        return start + connect
2134
2135    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2136        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2137
2138    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2139        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2140            side = None
2141        else:
2142            side = expression.side
2143
2144        op_sql = " ".join(
2145            op
2146            for op in (
2147                expression.method,
2148                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2149                side,
2150                expression.kind,
2151                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2152            )
2153            if op
2154        )
2155        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2156        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2157        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2158        using = expression.args.get("using")
2159
2160        if not on_sql and using:
2161            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2162
2163        this = expression.this
2164        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2165
2166        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2167        if exprs:
2168            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2169
2170        if on_sql:
2171            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2172            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2173            if using:
2174                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2175            else:
2176                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2177        elif not op_sql:
2178            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2179                return f" {this_sql}"
2180
2181            return f", {this_sql}"
2182
2183        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2184            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2185
2186        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2187
2188    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2189        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2190        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2191        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2192
2193    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2194        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2195
2196        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2197        if cross_apply is True:
2198            op = "INNER JOIN "
2199        elif cross_apply is False:
2200            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2201        else:
2202            op = ""
2203
2204        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2205
2206    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2208
2209        if expression.args.get("view"):
2210            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2211            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2212            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2213            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2214            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2215            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2216
2217        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2218        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2219        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2220
2221    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223
2224        args = [
2225            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2226            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2227            if e
2228        ]
2229
2230        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2231        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2233        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2234
2235        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2236
2237    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        value = expression.expression
2240        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2241        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2242        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2243        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2244
2245    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2246        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2247        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2250        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2251        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2252        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2253        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2254
2255    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2256        expressions = (
2257            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2258        )
2259        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2260        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2261
2262    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2263        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2264
2265    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2266        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2267            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2268            return ""
2269
2270        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2271        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2272        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2273        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2274
2275        if wait is not None:
2276            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2277                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2278            else:
2279                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2280
2281        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2282
2283    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2284        text = expression.this or ""
2285        if expression.is_string:
2286            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2287        return text
2288
2289    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2290        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2291            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2292            text = "".join(
2293                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2294            )
2295
2296        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2297            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2298        )
2299
2300    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2301        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2302        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2303        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2304        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2305        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2306        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2307        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2308        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2309        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2310        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2311        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2312
2313    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2314        return "NULL"
2315
2316    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2317        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2318
2319    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2321        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2322        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2323        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2324
2325    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2326        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2327        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2328        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2329        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2330        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2331        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2332        interpolated_values = [
2333            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2334            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2335            else self.sql(e, "this")
2336            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2337        ]
2338        interpolate = (
2339            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2340        )
2341        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2342
2343    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2344        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2345
2346    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2347        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2348
2349    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2350        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2351
2352    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2353        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2354        asc = not desc
2355
2356        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2357        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2358        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2359        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2360        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2361
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363
2364        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2365        nulls_sort_change = ""
2366        if nulls_first and (
2367            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2368        ):
2369            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2370        elif (
2371            nulls_last
2372            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2373            and not nulls_are_last
2374        ):
2375            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2376
2377        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2378        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2379            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2380            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2381                self.unsupported(
2382                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2383                )
2384                nulls_sort_change = ""
2385            elif (
2386                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2387                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2388                and (
2389                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2390                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2391                )
2392            ):
2393                self.unsupported(
2394                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2395                )
2396                nulls_sort_change = ""
2397            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2398                if expression.this.is_int:
2399                    self.unsupported(
2400                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2401                    )
2402                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2403                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2404                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2405                nulls_sort_change = ""
2406
2407        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2408        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2409
2410        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2411
2412    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2413        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2414        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2415
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417
2418        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2419
2420    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2421        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2422        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2423        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2424        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2425        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2426        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2427        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2428        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2429        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2430        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2431        definition_sqls = [
2432            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2433            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2434        ]
2435        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2436        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2437        body = "".join(
2438            (
2439                partition,
2440                order,
2441                measures,
2442                rows,
2443                after,
2444                pattern,
2445                define,
2446            )
2447        )
2448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2449        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2450        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2451
2452    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2453        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2454
2455        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2456            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2457        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2458            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2459
2460        return csv(
2461            *sqls,
2462            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2463            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2464            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2465            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2466            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2467            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2468            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2469            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2470            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2471            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2472            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2473            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2474            self.options_modifier(expression),
2475            sep="",
2476        )
2477
2478    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2479        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2480        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2481
2482    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2483        return ""
2484
2485    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2486        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2487    ) -> t.List[str]:
2488        return [
2489            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2490            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2491        ]
2492
2493    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2494        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2495        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2496        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2497
2498    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2499        into = expression.args.get("into")
2500        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2501            into.pop()
2502
2503        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2504        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2505        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2506        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2507
2508        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2509        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2510            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2511            limit.pop()
2512        else:
2513            top = ""
2514
2515        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2516
2517        if kind:
2518            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2519                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2520            else:
2521                if kind == "STRUCT":
2522                    expressions = self.expressions(
2523                        sqls=[
2524                            self.sql(
2525                                exp.Struct(
2526                                    expressions=[
2527                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2528                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2529                                        else e
2530                                        for e in expression.expressions
2531                                    ]
2532                                )
2533                            )
2534                        ]
2535                    )
2536                kind = ""
2537
2538        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2539        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2540
2541        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2542        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2543        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2544        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2545        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2546            expression,
2547            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2548            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2549            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2550        )
2551
2552        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2553        if expression.args.get("with"):
2554            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2555            expression.pop_comments()
2556
2557        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2558
2559        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2560            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2561                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2562            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2563                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2564            else:
2565                table_kind = ""
2566            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2567
2568        return sql
2569
2570    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2572        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2573        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2574
2575    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2576        if expression.expressions:
2577            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2578        return ""
2579
2580    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2581        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2582        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2583        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2584        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2585        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2586        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2587        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2588
2589    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2592
2593    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        kind = expression.text("kind")
2596        if kind:
2597            kind = f"{kind}."
2598        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2599
2600    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2602
2603    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2604        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2605        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2606        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2607        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2608            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2609
2610            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2611            expression.set("sample", None)
2612
2613        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2614        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2615        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2616
2617    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2619        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2620
2621    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2622        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2623
2624        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2625        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2626
2627        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2628            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2629                alias.append("columns", offset)
2630
2631        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2632            columns = alias.columns
2633            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2634        else:
2635            alias = self.sql(alias)
2636
2637        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2638        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2639            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2640        else:
2641            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2642                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2643            elif offset:
2644                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2645            else:
2646                suffix = alias
2647
2648        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2649
2650    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2651        return ""
2652
2653    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2654        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2655        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2656
2657    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2659        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2660        order = expression.args.get("order")
2661        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2662        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2663        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2664        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2665
2666        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2667
2668        first = expression.args.get("first")
2669        if first is None:
2670            first = ""
2671        else:
2672            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2673
2674        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2675            return f"{this} {alias}"
2676
2677        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2678        return f"{this} ({args})"
2679
2680    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2681        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2682        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2683
2684    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2687        end = (
2688            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2689            or "CURRENT ROW"
2690        )
2691        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2692
2693    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2695        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2696        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2697
2698    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2701        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2702        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2703
2704    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2705        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2706    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2707        return apply_index_offset(
2708            expression.this,
2709            expression.expressions,
2710            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2711        )
2712
2713    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2714        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2715        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2717
2718    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2719        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2720
2721    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2723        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2724            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2725                this = self.wrap(this)
2726            return f"ANY{this}"
2727        return f"ANY {this}"
2728
2729    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2730        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2731
2732    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2735
2736        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2737            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2738            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2739
2740        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2741
2742        if default:
2743            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2744
2745        statements.append("END")
2746
2747        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2748            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2749
2750        return " ".join(statements)
2751
2752    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2755        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2756
2757    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2758        order = expression.args.get("order")
2759        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2760        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2761
2762    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2764        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2765        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2766
2767    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2768        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2769
2770        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2771            func_name = "LTRIM"
2772        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2773            func_name = "RTRIM"
2774        else:
2775            func_name = "TRIM"
2776
2777        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2778
2779    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2780        args = expression.expressions
2781        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2782            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2783
2784        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2785            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2786
2787        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2788            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2789
2790        return args
2791
2792    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2793        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2794
2795        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2796        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2797            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2798
2799        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2800
2801    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2802        return self.func(
2803            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2804        )
2805
2806    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2808        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2809
2810    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2811        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2812        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2813        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2814        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2815        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2816        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2817        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2818        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2819
2820    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2822        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2823        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2824        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2825
2826    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2827        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2828
2829    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2830        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2831        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2832        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2833
2834    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2836
2837    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2838        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2839
2840        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2841            path = self.escape_str(path)
2842
2843        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2844            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2845
2846        return path
2847
2848    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2849        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2850            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2851            if not callable(transform):
2852                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2853                return ""
2854
2855            return transform(self, expression)
2856
2857        if isinstance(expression, int):
2858            return str(expression)
2859
2860        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2861            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2862            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2863        else:
2864            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2865            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2866
2867        return escaped
2868
2869    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2871
2872    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2875
2876        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2877        if unique_keys is not None:
2878            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2879        else:
2880            unique_keys = ""
2881
2882        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2883        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2884        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2885        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2886
2887        return self.func(
2888            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2889            *expression.expressions,
2890            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2891        )
2892
2893    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2894        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2895
2896    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2897        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2898        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2899        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2900        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2901        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2902        return self.func(
2903            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2904        )
2905
2906    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2909        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2910        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2911        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2912        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2913        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2914        return self.func(
2915            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2916            this,
2917            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2918        )
2919
2920    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2922        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2923        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2924
2925        if nested_schema:
2926            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2927
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2930        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2931        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2932
2933    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2934        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2935
2936    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2939        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2940        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2941        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2942        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2943        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2944        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2945        return self.func(
2946            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2947        )
2948
2949    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2952        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2953        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2954        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2955        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2956
2957    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2960        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2961        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2962        with_ = (
2963            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2964            if expressions
2965            else ""
2966        )
2967        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2968
2969    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2970        query = expression.args.get("query")
2971        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2972        field = expression.args.get("field")
2973        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2974
2975        if query:
2976            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2977        elif unnest:
2978            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2979        elif field:
2980            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2981        else:
2982            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2983
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2985
2986    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2987        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2988
2989    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2990        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2991        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2992            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2993        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2994
2995        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2996            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2997            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2998
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        if this:
3001            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3002            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3003
3004        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3005
3006    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3007        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3008
3009    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3012        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3013        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3014        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3015        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3016
3017    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3018        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3019        parent = expression.parent
3020        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3021        return self.func(
3022            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3023        )
3024
3025    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3026        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3027        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3028
3029    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3030        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3031        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3033        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3034
3035    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3036        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3037
3038    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3039        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3040        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3041        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3042
3043    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3044        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3045
3046        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3047        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3048
3049        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3050            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3051        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3052            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3053
3054        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3055
3056    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3057        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3058
3059    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3062        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3063
3064    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3067        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3068
3069    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3072        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3073
3074    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3075        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3076
3077    def and_sql(
3078        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3079    ) -> str:
3080        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3081
3082    def or_sql(
3083        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3084    ) -> str:
3085        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3086
3087    def xor_sql(
3088        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3089    ) -> str:
3090        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3091
3092    def connector_sql(
3093        self,
3094        expression: exp.Connector,
3095        op: str,
3096        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3097    ) -> str:
3098        if stack is not None:
3099            if expression.expressions:
3100                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3101            else:
3102                stack.append(expression.right)
3103                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3104                    for comment in expression.comments:
3105                        if comment:
3106                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3107                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3108            return op
3109
3110        stack = [expression]
3111        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3112        ops = set()
3113
3114        while stack:
3115            node = stack.pop()
3116            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3117                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3118            else:
3119                sql = self.sql(node)
3120                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3121                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3122                else:
3123                    sqls.append(sql)
3124
3125        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3126        return sep.join(sqls)
3127
3128    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3130
3131    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3133
3134    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3135        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3136
3137    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3139
3140    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3142
3143    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3145
3146    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3147        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3148        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3149        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3150        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3151        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3152        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3153        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3154
3155    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3156        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3158
3159    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3160        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3161            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3162        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3163
3164    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3166
3167    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3169        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3170        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3171        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3172        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3173        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3174
3175    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3177        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3178        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3179        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3180        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3181        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3182        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3183        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3184        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3185
3186    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3187        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3188        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3189        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3190        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3191
3192        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3193            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3194
3195        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3196
3197    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3198        return "BEGIN"
3199
3200    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3201        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3202        if chain is not None:
3203            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3204
3205        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3206
3207    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3208        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3209        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3210        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3211
3212    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3214
3215        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3216        if dtype:
3217            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3218            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3219            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3220            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3222
3223        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3224        if default:
3225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3226
3227        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3228        if comment:
3229            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3230
3231        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3232        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3233
3234        if not drop and not allow_null:
3235            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3236
3237        if allow_null is not None:
3238            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3240
3241        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3242
3243    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3245        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3246            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3247        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3248
3249    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3250        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3253        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3254        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3255
3256    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3257        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3258            # Remove db from tables
3259            expression = expression.transform(
3260                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3261            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3263        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3264
3265    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3266        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3267        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3268        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3269        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3270
3271    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3272        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3273        return f"SET {exprs}"
3274
3275    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3276        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3277
3278        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3279            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3280        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3281            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3282        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3283            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3284        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3285            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3286        else:
3287            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3288
3289        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3290        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3291        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3292        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3293        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3294        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3296        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3297
3298        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3299
3300    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3301        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3302            return self.expressions(
3303                expression,
3304                key="actions",
3305                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3306                skip_first=True,
3307            )
3308        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3309
3310    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3311        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3312        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3313        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3314
3315    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3316        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3317
3318    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3319        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3320
3321        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3322            case = exp.case()
3323            for arg in expression.expressions:
3324                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3325            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3326
3327        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3328
3329        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3330        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3331        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3332
3333    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3334        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3335
3336    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3337        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3338
3339    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3340        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3342        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3343        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3344
3345    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3346        return self.sql(
3347            exp.Cast(
3348                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3349                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3350            )
3351        )
3352
3353    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3354        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3355            return self.func(
3356                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3357            )
3358        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3359
3360    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3361        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3362
3363        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3364            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3365
3366        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3367            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3368                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3369
3370        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3371            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3372                return self.sql(
3373                    exp.cast(
3374                        l / r,
3375                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3376                    )
3377                )
3378
3379        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3380
3381    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3383
3384    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3386
3387    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3388        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3389
3390    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3392
3393    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3395
3396    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3398
3399    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3400        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3401
3402    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3403        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3404
3405    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3406        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3407
3408    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3410
3411    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3413
3414    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3415        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3416            return self.sql(
3417                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3418            )
3419        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3420
3421    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3422        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3423
3424    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3425        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3426
3427    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3428        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3429
3430    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3431        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3432
3433    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3435
3436    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3437        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3438
3439    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3440        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3441
3442    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3443        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3444
3445    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3446        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3447
3448    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3450
3451    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3452        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3453
3454    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3455        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3456
3457    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3458        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3459
3460    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3461        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3462            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3463            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3464
3465        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3466
3467    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3468        this = expression.this
3469        expr = expression.expression
3470
3471        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3472            this, expr = expr, this
3473        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3474            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3475                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3476
3477            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3478
3479        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3480
3481    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3483        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3486        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3487
3488    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3489        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3490        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3491        binary_type = type(expression)
3492
3493        while stack:
3494            node = stack.pop()
3495
3496            if type(node) is binary_type:
3497                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3498                if op_func:
3499                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3500
3501                stack.append(node.right)
3502                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3503                stack.append(node.left)
3504            else:
3505                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3506
3507        return "".join(sqls)
3508
3509    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3510        args = []
3511
3512        for key in expression.arg_types:
3513            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3514
3515            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3516                for value in arg_value:
3517                    args.append(value)
3518            elif arg_value is not None:
3519                args.append(arg_value)
3520
3521        if self.normalize_functions:
3522            name = expression.sql_name()
3523        else:
3524            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3525
3526        return self.func(name, *args)
3527
3528    def func(
3529        self,
3530        name: str,
3531        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3532        prefix: str = "(",
3533        suffix: str = ")",
3534        normalize: bool = True,
3535    ) -> str:
3536        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3537        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3538
3539    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3540        arg_sqls = tuple(
3541            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3542        )
3543        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3544            return self.indent(
3545                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3546            )
3547        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3548
3549    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3550        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3551
3552    def format_time(
3553        self,
3554        expression: exp.Expression,
3555        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3556        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3557    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3558        return format_time(
3559            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3560            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3561            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3562        )
3563
3564    def expressions(
3565        self,
3566        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3567        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3568        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3569        flat: bool = False,
3570        indent: bool = True,
3571        skip_first: bool = False,
3572        skip_last: bool = False,
3573        sep: str = ", ",
3574        prefix: str = "",
3575        dynamic: bool = False,
3576        new_line: bool = False,
3577    ) -> str:
3578        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3579
3580        if not expressions:
3581            return ""
3582
3583        if flat:
3584            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3585
3586        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3587        result_sqls = []
3588
3589        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3590            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3591            if not sql:
3592                continue
3593
3594            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3595
3596            if self.pretty:
3597                if self.leading_comma:
3598                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3599                else:
3600                    result_sqls.append(
3601                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3602                    )
3603            else:
3604                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3605
3606        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3607            if new_line:
3608                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3609                result_sqls.append("")
3610            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3611        else:
3612            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3613
3614        return (
3615            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3616            if indent
3617            else result_sql
3618        )
3619
3620    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3621        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3622        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3623        if flat:
3624            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3625        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3626
3627    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3628        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3629        if not property_name:
3630            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3631        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3632
3633    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3634        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3635
3636    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3637        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3638
3639    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3641        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3642        expressions = (
3643            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3644        )
3645        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3646
3647    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3650        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3651
3652    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3653        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3654
3655    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3656        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3657        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3658        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3659        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3660
3661        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3662        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3663            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3664            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3665            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3666            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3667        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3668            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3669                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3670            else:
3671                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3672        else:
3673            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3674        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3675
3676    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3677        table = expression.this
3678        table_alias = ""
3679
3680        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3681        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3682            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3683            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3684
3685        this = self.sql(table)
3686        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3687        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3688        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3689        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3690        if returning:
3691            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3692
3693        sep = self.sep()
3694
3695        return self.prepend_ctes(
3696            expression,
3697            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3698        )
3699
3700    @unsupported_args("format")
3701    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3702        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3703
3704    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3705        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3706            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3707            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3708
3709        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3710        if not fmt:
3711            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3712            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3713
3714        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3715
3716    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3719        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3720        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3721        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3722
3723    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3725        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3726        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3727        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3728
3729    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3731
3732    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3733        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3734
3735    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3736    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3738        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3739        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3740        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3741        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3742        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3743        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3744
3745    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3746        return ""
3747
3748    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3750        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3751        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3752        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3753        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3754
3755    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3758
3759        if having:
3760            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3761
3762        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3763
3764    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3765        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3766        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3767        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3768        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3769        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3770        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3771        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3772        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3773        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3774        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3775        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3776        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3777        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3778
3779    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3780        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3781        if key_block_size:
3782            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3783
3784        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3785        if using:
3786            return f"USING {using}"
3787
3788        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3789        if parser:
3790            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3791
3792        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3793        if comment:
3794            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3795
3796        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3797        if visible is not None:
3798            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3799
3800        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3801        if engine_attr:
3802            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3803
3804        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3805        if secondary_engine_attr:
3806            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3807
3808        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3809        return ""
3810
3811    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3812        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3813        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3814
3815    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3816        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3817        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3819        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3820        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3821        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3823        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3826        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3827
3828    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3829        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3830            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3831
3832        case = exp.Case().when(
3833            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3834            expression.args["true"],
3835            copy=False,
3836        )
3837        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3838        if else_cond:
3839            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3840
3841        return self.sql(case)
3842
3843    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3845        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3846        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3847        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3848        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3849        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3850
3851    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3853
3854    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3855        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3856
3857    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3858        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3859        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3860        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3861        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3862        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3863        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3864
3865    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3867        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3868        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3869
3870    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3872        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3873        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3874
3875    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3876        arg = expression.this
3877        if not arg.type:
3878            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3879
3880            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3881
3882        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3883            return self.sql(arg)
3884
3885        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3886        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3887
3888    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3889        this = expression.this
3890        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3891            return self.sql(this)
3892
3893        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3894
3895    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3896        this = expression.this
3897        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3898            return self.sql(this)
3899
3900        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3901
3902    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3903        this = expression.this
3904        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3905
3906        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3907            return self.sql(
3908                exp.cast(
3909                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3910                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3911                )
3912            )
3913
3914        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3915            return self.sql(this)
3916
3917        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3918
3919    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3920        return self.sql(
3921            exp.func(
3922                "DATEDIFF",
3923                expression.this,
3924                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3925                "day",
3926            )
3927        )
3928
3929    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3930        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3931            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3932
3933        unit = expression.text("unit")
3934        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3935            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3936
3937        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3938
3939    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3940        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3941
3942        return self.func(
3943            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3944        )
3945
3946    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3947        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3948            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3949            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3950            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3951            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3952
3953        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3954
3955        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3956        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3957            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3958
3959        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3960
3961    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3962        expression.set(
3963            "expressions",
3964            [
3965                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3966                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3967                else e
3968                for e in expression.expressions
3969            ],
3970        )
3971
3972        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3973
3974    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3975        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3976        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3977
3978        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3979
3980    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3981        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3982        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3983
3984        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3985
3986        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3987        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3988
3989        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3990        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3991
3992        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3993        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3994
3995        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3996        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3997
3998        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3999
4000    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4001    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4002    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4003        to = expression.this
4004        value = expression.expression
4005        style = expression.args.get("style")
4006        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4007        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4008
4009        if not to or not value:
4010            return ""
4011
4012        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4013        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4014            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4015
4016        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4017        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4018
4019        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4020        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4021            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4022
4023            style_value = style.name
4024            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4025            if not converted_style:
4026                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4027
4028            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4029
4030            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4031                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4032            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4033                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4034            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4035                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4036            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4037                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4038
4039        if not transformed:
4040            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4041
4042        return self.sql(transformed)
4043
4044    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4045        this = expression.this
4046        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4047            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4048            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4049
4050        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4051            return f".{this}"
4052
4053        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4054        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4055
4056    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4057        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4058        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4059
4060    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4061        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4062            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4063
4064            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4065
4066        return expression
4067
4068    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4069        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4070            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4071            mods = sorted(
4072                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4073                key=lambda x: 0
4074                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4075                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4076            )
4077
4078            if mods:
4079                mod = mods[0]
4080                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4081                this.meta["inline"] = True
4082                mod.this.replace(this)
4083                return self.sql(expression.this)
4084
4085            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4086
4087            if agg_func:
4088                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4089
4090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4091
4092    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4093        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4094        if self.pretty:
4095            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4096        return string
4097
4098    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4099        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4100
4101        if expression.expressions:
4102            upper = option.upper()
4103
4104            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4105            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4106
4107            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4108            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4109            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4110            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4111
4112        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4113
4114        if not value:
4115            return option
4116
4117        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4118
4119        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4120
4121    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4122        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4123        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4124            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4125            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4126            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4127        else:
4128            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4129            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4130            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4131
4132        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4133        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4134
4135        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4136        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4137
4138        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4139        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4140
4141        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4142        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4143
4144        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4145
4146    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4148        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4149
4150        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4151        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4152        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4153        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4154
4155        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4156        params = self.expressions(
4157            expression,
4158            key="params",
4159            sep=sep,
4160            new_line=True,
4161            skip_last=True,
4162            skip_first=True,
4163            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4164        )
4165
4166        if params:
4167            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4168                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4169            elif not self.pretty:
4170                params = f" {params}"
4171
4172        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4173
4174    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4175        return ""
4176
4177    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4178        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4179        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4180        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4181        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4182        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4183
4184        if filter_col or retention_period:
4185            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4186
4187        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4188
4189    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4190        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4191    ) -> str:
4192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4193        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4194        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4195        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4196
4197    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4199        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4200        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4201
4202    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4203        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4204
4205    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4207        expr = expression.expression
4208
4209        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4210            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4211            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4212        else:
4213            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4214
4215        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4216
4217    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4218        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4219            return self.sql(expression.this)
4220
4221        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4222
4223    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4224        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4225        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4226
4227        if lower and upper:
4228            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4229        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4230
4231    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4232        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4233        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4234        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4235        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4236        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4237        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4238
4239        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4240
4241    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4242        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4243
4244        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4245        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4246            fill_pattern = "' '"
4247
4248        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4249
4250    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4251        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4252        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4253
4254    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4255        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4256
4257        parent = expression.parent
4258        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4259            parent = parent.parent
4260
4261        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4262            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4263
4264        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4265            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4266
4267        return self.sql(generate_series)
4268
4269    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4270        exprs = expression.expressions
4271        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4272            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4273        else:
4274            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4275
4276        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4277
4278    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4279        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4280            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4281
4282        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4283        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4284        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4285
4286        if source_tz and timestamp:
4287            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4288                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4289            )
4290
4291        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4292
4293        return self.sql(expr)
4294
4295    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4297        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4298
4299        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4300
4301        if _with is None:
4302            with_sql = ""
4303        elif not _with:
4304            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4305        else:
4306            with_sql = " WITH"
4307
4308        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4309
4310        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4311
4312    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4313        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4314            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4315
4316        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4317        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4318        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4319
4320        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4321        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4322
4323        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4324
4325    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4326        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4327        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4328        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4329        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4330        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4331
4332    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4333        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4334        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4335        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4336        return res
4337
4338    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4339        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4340        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4341        empty = (
4342            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4343            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4344            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4345        )
4346
4347        error = expression.args.get("error")
4348        error = (
4349            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4350            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4351            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4352        )
4353
4354        if error and empty:
4355            error = (
4356                f"{empty} {error}"
4357                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4358                else f"{error} {empty}"
4359            )
4360            empty = ""
4361
4362        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4363
4364        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4365
4366    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4368        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4369
4370        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4371        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4372
4373        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4374        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4375
4376        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4377
4378        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4379
4380    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4381        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4382
4383        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4384        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4385        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4386            parent = expression.parent
4387            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4388                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4389                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4390            else:
4391                this = expression.this
4392                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4393                if this.find(exp.Column):
4394                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4395                    this_sql = (
4396                        self.expressions(this)
4397                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4398                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4399                    )
4400
4401                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4402
4403        return array_agg
4404
4405    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4408
4409        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4410
4411    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4412        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4413
4414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4415        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4416
4417        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4418        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4419
4420        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4421
4422        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4423
4424        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4425
4426    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4428        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4429        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4430
4431        return f"{this}{columns}"
4432
4433    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4435
4436        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4437        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4438
4439        return f"{kind}{this}"
4440
4441    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4442        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4443        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4444            func = f"*{func}"
4445
4446        return func
4447
4448    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4450        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4451        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4452        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4453        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4454
4455        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4456
4457    @unsupported_args("format")
4458    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4459        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4460
4461    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4462        this = expression.this
4463        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4464
4465        if zone:
4466            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4467            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4468            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4469            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4470                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4471            )
4472
4473        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4474
4475    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4476        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4477            return self.sql(
4478                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4479            )
4480
4481        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4482
4483    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4484        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4485        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4486        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4487        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4488
4489    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4490        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4491            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4492
4493        start_ts = exp.cast(
4494            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4495        )
4496
4497        return self.sql(
4498            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4499        )
4500
4501    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4502        dim = expression.expression
4503
4504        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4505        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4506            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4507                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4508            dim = None
4509
4510        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4511        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4512            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4513
4514        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
657    def __init__(
658        self,
659        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
660        identify: str | bool = False,
661        normalize: bool = False,
662        pad: int = 2,
663        indent: int = 2,
664        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
665        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
666        max_unsupported: int = 3,
667        leading_comma: bool = False,
668        max_text_width: int = 80,
669        comments: bool = True,
670        dialect: DialectType = None,
671    ):
672        import sqlglot
673        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
674
675        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
676        self.identify = identify
677        self.normalize = normalize
678        self.pad = pad
679        self._indent = indent
680        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
681        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
682        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
683        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
684        self.comments = comments
685        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
686
687        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
688        self.normalize_functions = (
689            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
690        )
691
692        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
693        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
694            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
695        )
696        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
697
698        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
699
700        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
701        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = 'ARRAY_LENGTH'
ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: Optional[bool] = None
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
703    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
704        """
705        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
706
707        Args:
708            expression: The syntax tree.
709            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
710                it is safer to copy.
711
712        Returns:
713            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
714        """
715        if copy:
716            expression = expression.copy()
717
718        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
719
720        self.unsupported_messages = []
721        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
722
723        if self.pretty:
724            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
725
726        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
727            return sql
728
729        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
730            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
731                logger.warning(msg)
732        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
733            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
734
735        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
737    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
738        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
739        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
740
741        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
742            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
743
744            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
745
746        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
759    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
760        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
761            raise UnsupportedError(message)
762        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
764    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
765        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
767    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
768        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
770    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
771        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
772        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
773        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
775    def maybe_comment(
776        self,
777        sql: str,
778        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
779        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
780        separated: bool = False,
781    ) -> str:
782        comments = (
783            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
784            if self.comments
785            else None
786        )
787
788        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
789            return sql
790
791        comments_sql = " ".join(
792            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
793        )
794
795        if not comments_sql:
796            return sql
797
798        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
799
800        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
801            return (
802                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
803                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
804                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
805            )
806
807        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
809    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
810        this_sql = (
811            self.sql(expression)
812            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
813            else self.sql(expression, "this")
814        )
815        if not this_sql:
816            return "()"
817
818        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
819        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
821    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
822        original = self.identify
823        self.identify = False
824        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
825        self.identify = original
826        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
828    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
829        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
830            return name.upper()
831        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
832            return name.lower()
833        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
835    def indent(
836        self,
837        sql: str,
838        level: int = 0,
839        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
840        skip_first: bool = False,
841        skip_last: bool = False,
842    ) -> str:
843        if not self.pretty or not sql:
844            return sql
845
846        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
847        lines = sql.split("\n")
848
849        return "\n".join(
850            (
851                line
852                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
853                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
854            )
855            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
856        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
858    def sql(
859        self,
860        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
861        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
862        comment: bool = True,
863    ) -> str:
864        if not expression:
865            return ""
866
867        if isinstance(expression, str):
868            return expression
869
870        if key:
871            value = expression.args.get(key)
872            if value:
873                return self.sql(value)
874            return ""
875
876        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
877
878        if callable(transform):
879            sql = transform(self, expression)
880        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
881            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
882
883            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
884                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
885            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
886                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
887            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
888                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
889            else:
890                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
891        else:
892            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
893
894        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
896    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
897        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
898        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
899        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
901    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
902        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
903        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
904        options = expression.args.get("options")
905        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
906        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
907        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
908        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
909        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
911    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
912        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
913            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
914        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
915        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
917    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
918        return ".".join(
919            self.sql(part)
920            for part in (
921                expression.args.get("catalog"),
922                expression.args.get("db"),
923                expression.args.get("table"),
924                expression.args.get("this"),
925            )
926            if part
927        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
929    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
930        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
931
932        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
933            join_mark = ""
934            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
935
936        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
938    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
940        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
941        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
942        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
944    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
945        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
946        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
947        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
948        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
949        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
950        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
951        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
952        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
953
954        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
955            kind = ""
956
957        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
959    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
961        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
962        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
964    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
966        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
967            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
968        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
969            persisted = " PERSISTED"
970        else:
971            persisted = ""
972        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
974    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
975        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
977    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
978        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
979            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
980        else:
981            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
982
983        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
 985    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 986        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 987    ) -> str:
 988        this = ""
 989        if expression.this is not None:
 990            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 991            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 992
 993        start = expression.args.get("start")
 994        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 995        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 996        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 997        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 998        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 999        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1000        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1001        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1002        cycle_sql = ""
1003
1004        if cycle is not None:
1005            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1006            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1007
1008        sequence_opts = ""
1009        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1010            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1011            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1012
1013        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1015
1016        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1019        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1020    ) -> str:
1021        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1022        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1023        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1025    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1026        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1027    ) -> str:
1028        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1030    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1031        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1033    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1034        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1036    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1037        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1038        if desc is not None:
1039            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1040        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1042    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1045        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1046        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1047        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1048        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1049        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1050        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1052    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1053        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1055    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1056        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1057        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1058        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1059        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1060
1061        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1062
1063        properties_sql = ""
1064        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1065            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1066        ):
1067            properties_sql = self.sql(
1068                exp.Properties(
1069                    expressions=[
1070                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1071                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1072                    ]
1073                )
1074            )
1075
1076            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1077                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1078            elif not self.pretty:
1079                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1080                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1081
1082        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1083        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1084
1085        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1086        if expression_sql:
1087            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1088
1089            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1090                postalias_props_sql = ""
1091                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1092                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1093                        exp.Properties(
1094                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1095                        ),
1096                        wrapped=False,
1097                    )
1098                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1099                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1100
1101        postindex_props_sql = ""
1102        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1103            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1104                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1105                wrapped=False,
1106                prefix=" ",
1107            )
1108
1109        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1110        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1111        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1112
1113        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1114        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1115        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1116
1117        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1118        if clustered is None:
1119            clustered_sql = ""
1120        elif clustered:
1121            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1122        else:
1123            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1124
1125        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1126        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1127            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1128                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1129                sep=" ",
1130                prefix=" ",
1131                wrapped=False,
1132            )
1133
1134        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1135
1136        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1137        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1138            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1139                exp.Properties(
1140                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1141                ),
1142                sep=" ",
1143                prefix=" ",
1144                wrapped=False,
1145            )
1146
1147        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1148        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1149        no_schema_binding = (
1150            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1151        )
1152
1153        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1154        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1155
1156        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1157        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1159    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1160        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1161        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1162        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1163        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1164        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1165        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1166        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1167        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1168        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1169        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1170
1171        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1172        if cache is None:
1173            cache_str = ""
1174        elif cache is True:
1175            cache_str = " CACHE"
1176        else:
1177            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1178
1179        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1180        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1181
1182        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1184    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1187        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1188        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1190    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1191        style = expression.args.get("style")
1192        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1193        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1194        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1195        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1197    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1198        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1199        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1201    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1202        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1203        if with_:
1204            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1205        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1207    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1208        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1209        recursive = (
1210            "RECURSIVE "
1211            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1212            else ""
1213        )
1214
1215        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1217    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1218        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1219        if alias:
1220            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1221
1222        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1223
1224        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1225        if materialized is False:
1226            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1227        elif materialized:
1228            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1229
1230        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1232    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1233        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1235        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1236
1237        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1238            columns = ""
1239            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1240
1241        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1242            alias = self._next_name()
1243
1244        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1246    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1249            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1250        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1252    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1255            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1256        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1258    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1260        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1261            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1262        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1264    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1267
1268        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1269            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1270            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1271        else:
1272            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1273            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1274
1275        if escape:
1276            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1277            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1278        else:
1279            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1280            escape_sql = ""
1281
1282        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1283            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1284
1285        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1287    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1288        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1289        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1291    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1293        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1294        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1295        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1297    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1298        nested = ""
1299        values = ""
1300        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1301
1302        type_value = expression.this
1303        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1304            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1305        else:
1306            type_sql = (
1307                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1308                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1309                else type_value
1310            )
1311
1312        if interior:
1313            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1314                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1315                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1316                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1317                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1318                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1319            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1320                nested = f" {interior}"
1321            else:
1322                nested = f"({interior})"
1323
1324        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1325        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1326            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1327            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1328        ):
1329            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1330
1331        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1333    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1334        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1335        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1336        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1337        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1339    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1342        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1343        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1344        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1345        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1346        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1347        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1348        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1349        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1350        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1357    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1360        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1361        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1362        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1363        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1364        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1365        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1366        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1367        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1368        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1369        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1370        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1371        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1372        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1374    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1375        op_type = type(expression)
1376        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1377
1378        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1379        if (
1380            distinct is False
1381            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1382            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1383        ):
1384            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1385
1386        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1387
1388        if distinct is None:
1389            distinct = default_distinct
1390            if distinct is None:
1391                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1392
1393        if distinct is default_distinct:
1394            kind = ""
1395        else:
1396            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1397
1398        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1399        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1401    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1402        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1403            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1404            order = expression.args.get("order")
1405
1406            if limit or order:
1407                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1408                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1409                )
1410
1411                if limit:
1412                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1413                if order:
1414                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1415                return self.sql(select)
1416
1417        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1418        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1419
1420        while stack:
1421            node = stack.pop()
1422
1423            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1424                stack.append(node.expression)
1425                stack.append(
1426                    self.maybe_comment(
1427                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1428                    )
1429                )
1430                stack.append(node.this)
1431            else:
1432                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1433
1434        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1435        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1436        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1438    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1439        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1440        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1441        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1442        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1443        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1444            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1445        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1446        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1448    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1449        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1450            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1452            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1453
1454        agg = expression.this
1455        agg_arg = agg.this
1456        cond = expression.expression.this
1457        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1458        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1460    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1461        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1462            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1463            return ""
1464
1465        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1467    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1468        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1469        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1470        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1471        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1472        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1473        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1474        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1475        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1476        if include:
1477            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1478        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1479        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1480        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1481        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1482        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1483        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1484
1485        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1487    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1488        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1489        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1490        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1491        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1492        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1493        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1494        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1495
1496        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1497
1498        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1499        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1501    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1502        text = expression.name
1503        lower = text.lower()
1504        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1505        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1506        if (
1507            expression.quoted
1508            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1509            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1510            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1511        ):
1512            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1513        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1515    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1516        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1517        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1518            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1519
1520        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1522    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1523        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1524        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1525            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1526        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1528    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1529        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1530        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1531        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1532        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1533        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1535    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1536        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1537        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1539    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1540        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1542    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1543        root_properties = []
1544        with_properties = []
1545
1546        for p in expression.expressions:
1547            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1548            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1549                with_properties.append(p)
1550            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1551                root_properties.append(p)
1552
1553        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1554        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1555
1556        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1557            with_props = " " + with_props
1558
1559        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1561    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1562        if properties.expressions:
1563            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1564        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1566    def properties(
1567        self,
1568        properties: exp.Properties,
1569        prefix: str = "",
1570        sep: str = ", ",
1571        suffix: str = "",
1572        wrapped: bool = True,
1573    ) -> str:
1574        if properties.expressions:
1575            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1576            if expressions:
1577                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1578                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1579        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1581    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1582        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1584    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1585        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1586        for p in properties.expressions:
1587            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1588            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1589                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1590            else:
1591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1592
1593        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1595    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1596        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1597            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1598        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1600    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1601        property_cls = expression.__class__
1602        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1603            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1604
1605        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1606        if not property_name:
1607            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1608
1609        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1611    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1612        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1613            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1614            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1615
1616            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1617            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1618                like = f"({like})"
1619
1620            return like
1621
1622        if expression.expressions:
1623            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1624
1625        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1626        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1628    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1629        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1630        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1631        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1633    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1634        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1635        local = expression.args.get("local")
1636        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1637        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1638        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1639        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1640        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1642    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1643        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1645        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1647    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1648        if expression.args.get("default"):
1649            property = "DEFAULT"
1650        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1651            property = "ON"
1652        else:
1653            property = "OFF"
1654        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1656    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1657        if expression.args.get("no"):
1658            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1659        if expression.args.get("default"):
1660            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1661
1662        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1663        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1665    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1666        default = expression.args.get("default")
1667        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1668        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1669        if default or minimum or maximum:
1670            if default:
1671                prop = "DEFAULT"
1672            elif minimum:
1673                prop = "MINIMUM"
1674            else:
1675                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1676            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1677        units = expression.args.get("units")
1678        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1679        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1681    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1682        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1683        always = expression.args.get("always")
1684        default = expression.args.get("default")
1685        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1686        never = expression.args.get("never")
1687
1688        if autotemp is not None:
1689            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1690        elif always:
1691            prop = "ALWAYS"
1692        elif default:
1693            prop = "DEFAULT"
1694        elif manual:
1695            prop = "MANUAL"
1696        elif never:
1697            prop = "NEVER"
1698        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1700    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1701        no = expression.args.get("no")
1702        no = " NO" if no else ""
1703        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1704        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1705        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1706        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1707        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1709    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1710        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1711            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1712        if expression.this:
1713            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1715            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1716
1717        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1718        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1719        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1721    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723
1724        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1725        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1726            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1727        else:
1728            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1729
1730        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1732    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1733        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1734        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1735        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1736        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1737        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1738        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1739        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1741    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1742        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1743        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1744        statistics_sql = ""
1745        if statistics is not None:
1746            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1747        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1749    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1751        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1752        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1753        data_consistency = (
1754            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1755        )
1756        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1757        retention_period = (
1758            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1759        )
1760
1761        if this:
1762            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1763        else:
1764            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1765
1766        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1767
1768        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1770    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1771        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1772        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1773
1774        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1775            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1776        else:
1777            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1778
1779        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1780        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1781        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1782        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1783        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1784        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1785        if is_function:
1786            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1787        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1788
1789        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1790        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1791        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1792        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1793        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1794        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1795        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1796        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1797
1798        if self.RETURNING_END:
1799            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1800        else:
1801            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1802
1803        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1804        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1805        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1806        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1807
1808        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1809        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1810
1811        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1812        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1814    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1817    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1819        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1822        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1824    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1825        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1827    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1828        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1830    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1831        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1832
1833        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1834        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1835
1836        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1837        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1838        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1839
1840        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1841        if expressions:
1842            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1843            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1844
1845        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1847    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1848        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1850    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1851        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1852        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1853        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1854        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1855        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1856        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1857        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1858        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1859        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1860        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1861        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1862        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1863        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1865    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1866        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1868    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1869        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1870        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1871        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1872        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1874    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1877        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1878        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1880    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1881        return ".".join(
1882            self.sql(part)
1883            for part in (
1884                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1885                expression.args.get("db"),
1886                expression.args.get("this"),
1887            )
1888            if part is not None
1889        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1891    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1892        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1893        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1894        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1895        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1896        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1897        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1898        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1899        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1900
1901        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1902        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1903            sample_pre_alias = sample
1904            sample_post_alias = ""
1905        else:
1906            sample_pre_alias = ""
1907            sample_post_alias = sample
1908
1909        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1910        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1911        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1912        joins = self.indent(
1913            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1914        )
1915        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1916
1917        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1918        if file_format:
1919            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1920            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1921            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1922
1923        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1924        if ordinality:
1925            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1926            alias = ""
1927
1928        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1929        if when:
1930            table = f"{table} {when}"
1931
1932        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1933        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1934
1935        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1936        if rows_from:
1937            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1938
1939        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1941    def tablesample_sql(
1942        self,
1943        expression: exp.TableSample,
1944        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1945    ) -> str:
1946        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1947        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1948        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1949        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1950        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1951        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1952        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1953        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1954        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1955
1956        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1957        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1958            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1959
1960        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1961        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1962            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1963
1964        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1965        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1966            expr = f"({expr})"
1967
1968        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1970    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972
1973        if expression.this:
1974            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975            if not expressions:
1976                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1977
1978            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1979            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1980            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1981            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1982            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1983
1984        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1985        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1986        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1987
1988        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1989
1990        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1991        if include_nulls is not None:
1992            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1993        else:
1994            nulls = ""
1995
1996        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1997        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1998        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
2000    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2001        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2002        kind = expression.text("kind")
2003        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2004        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
2006    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2007        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
2009    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2012        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2013        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2014        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2015        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2016        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2017        if self.RETURNING_END:
2018            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2019        else:
2020            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2021        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2024    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2025        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2026
2027        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2028        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2029            args = self.expressions(expression)
2030            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2031            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2032            values = (
2033                f"({values})"
2034                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2035                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2036                else values
2037            )
2038            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2039
2040        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2041        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2042        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2043
2044        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2045
2046        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2047            row = tup.expressions
2048
2049            if i == 0 and column_names:
2050                row = [
2051                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2052                ]
2053
2054            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2055
2056        if self.pretty:
2057            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2058            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2059            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2060            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2061            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2062
2063        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2064        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2065        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2067    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2068        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2070    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2071    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2072        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2073        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2074        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2076    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2077        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2079    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2081        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2083    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2085        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2087    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2088        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2089        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2091    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2092        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2093        if group_by_all is True:
2094            modifier = " ALL"
2095        elif group_by_all is False:
2096            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2097        else:
2098            modifier = ""
2099
2100        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2101
2102        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2103        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2104        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2105
2106        groupings = csv(
2107            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2108            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2109            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2110            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2111            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2112        )
2113
2114        if (
2115            expression.expressions
2116            and groupings
2117            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2118        ):
2119            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2120
2121        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2123    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2124        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2125        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2127    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2128        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2129        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2130        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2131        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2132        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2133        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2135    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2136        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2138    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2139        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2140            side = None
2141        else:
2142            side = expression.side
2143
2144        op_sql = " ".join(
2145            op
2146            for op in (
2147                expression.method,
2148                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2149                side,
2150                expression.kind,
2151                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2152            )
2153            if op
2154        )
2155        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2156        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2157        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2158        using = expression.args.get("using")
2159
2160        if not on_sql and using:
2161            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2162
2163        this = expression.this
2164        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2165
2166        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2167        if exprs:
2168            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2169
2170        if on_sql:
2171            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2172            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2173            if using:
2174                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2175            else:
2176                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2177        elif not op_sql:
2178            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2179                return f" {this_sql}"
2180
2181            return f", {this_sql}"
2182
2183        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2184            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2185
2186        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2188    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2189        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2190        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2191        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2193    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2194        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2195
2196        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2197        if cross_apply is True:
2198            op = "INNER JOIN "
2199        elif cross_apply is False:
2200            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2201        else:
2202            op = ""
2203
2204        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2206    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2208
2209        if expression.args.get("view"):
2210            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2211            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2212            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2213            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2214            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2215            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2216
2217        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2218        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2219        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2221    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223
2224        args = [
2225            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2226            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2227            if e
2228        ]
2229
2230        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2231        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2233        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2234
2235        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2237    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        value = expression.expression
2240        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2241        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2242        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2243        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2245    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2246        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2247        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2250        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2251        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2252        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2253        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2255    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2256        expressions = (
2257            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2258        )
2259        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2260        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2262    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2263        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2265    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2266        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2267            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2268            return ""
2269
2270        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2271        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2272        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2273        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2274
2275        if wait is not None:
2276            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2277                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2278            else:
2279                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2280
2281        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2283    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2284        text = expression.this or ""
2285        if expression.is_string:
2286            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2287        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2289    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2290        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2291            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2292            text = "".join(
2293                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2294            )
2295
2296        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2297            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2298        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2300    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2301        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2302        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2303        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2304        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2305        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2306        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2307        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2308        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2309        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2310        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2311        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2313    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2314        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2316    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2317        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2319    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2321        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2322        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2323        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2325    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2326        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2327        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2328        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2329        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2330        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2331        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2332        interpolated_values = [
2333            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2334            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2335            else self.sql(e, "this")
2336            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2337        ]
2338        interpolate = (
2339            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2340        )
2341        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2343    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2344        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2346    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2347        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2349    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2350        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2352    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2353        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2354        asc = not desc
2355
2356        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2357        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2358        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2359        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2360        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2361
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363
2364        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2365        nulls_sort_change = ""
2366        if nulls_first and (
2367            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2368        ):
2369            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2370        elif (
2371            nulls_last
2372            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2373            and not nulls_are_last
2374        ):
2375            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2376
2377        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2378        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2379            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2380            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2381                self.unsupported(
2382                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2383                )
2384                nulls_sort_change = ""
2385            elif (
2386                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2387                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2388                and (
2389                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2390                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2391                )
2392            ):
2393                self.unsupported(
2394                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2395                )
2396                nulls_sort_change = ""
2397            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2398                if expression.this.is_int:
2399                    self.unsupported(
2400                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2401                    )
2402                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2403                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2404                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2405                nulls_sort_change = ""
2406
2407        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2408        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2409
2410        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2412    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2413        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2414        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2415
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417
2418        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2420    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2421        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2422        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2423        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2424        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2425        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2426        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2427        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2428        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2429        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2430        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2431        definition_sqls = [
2432            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2433            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2434        ]
2435        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2436        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2437        body = "".join(
2438            (
2439                partition,
2440                order,
2441                measures,
2442                rows,
2443                after,
2444                pattern,
2445                define,
2446            )
2447        )
2448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2449        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2450        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2452    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2453        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2454
2455        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2456            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2457        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2458            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2459
2460        return csv(
2461            *sqls,
2462            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2463            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2464            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2465            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2466            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2467            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2468            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2469            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2470            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2471            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2472            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2473            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2474            self.options_modifier(expression),
2475            sep="",
2476        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2478    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2479        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2480        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2482    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2483        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2485    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2486        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2487    ) -> t.List[str]:
2488        return [
2489            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2490            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2491        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2493    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2494        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2495        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2496        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2498    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2499        into = expression.args.get("into")
2500        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2501            into.pop()
2502
2503        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2504        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2505        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2506        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2507
2508        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2509        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2510            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2511            limit.pop()
2512        else:
2513            top = ""
2514
2515        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2516
2517        if kind:
2518            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2519                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2520            else:
2521                if kind == "STRUCT":
2522                    expressions = self.expressions(
2523                        sqls=[
2524                            self.sql(
2525                                exp.Struct(
2526                                    expressions=[
2527                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2528                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2529                                        else e
2530                                        for e in expression.expressions
2531                                    ]
2532                                )
2533                            )
2534                        ]
2535                    )
2536                kind = ""
2537
2538        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2539        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2540
2541        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2542        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2543        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2544        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2545        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2546            expression,
2547            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2548            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2549            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2550        )
2551
2552        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2553        if expression.args.get("with"):
2554            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2555            expression.pop_comments()
2556
2557        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2558
2559        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2560            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2561                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2562            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2563                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2564            else:
2565                table_kind = ""
2566            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2567
2568        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2570    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2572        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2573        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2575    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2576        if expression.expressions:
2577            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2578        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2580    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2581        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2582        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2583        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2584        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2585        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2586        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2587        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2589    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2593    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        kind = expression.text("kind")
2596        if kind:
2597            kind = f"{kind}."
2598        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2600    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2603    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2604        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2605        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2606        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2607        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2608            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2609
2610            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2611            expression.set("sample", None)
2612
2613        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2614        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2615        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2617    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2619        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2621    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2622        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2623
2624        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2625        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2626
2627        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2628            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2629                alias.append("columns", offset)
2630
2631        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2632            columns = alias.columns
2633            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2634        else:
2635            alias = self.sql(alias)
2636
2637        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2638        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2639            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2640        else:
2641            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2642                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2643            elif offset:
2644                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2645            else:
2646                suffix = alias
2647
2648        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2650    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2651        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2653    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2654        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2655        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2657    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2659        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2660        order = expression.args.get("order")
2661        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2662        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2663        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2664        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2665
2666        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2667
2668        first = expression.args.get("first")
2669        if first is None:
2670            first = ""
2671        else:
2672            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2673
2674        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2675            return f"{this} {alias}"
2676
2677        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2678        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2680    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2681        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2682        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2684    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2687        end = (
2688            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2689            or "CURRENT ROW"
2690        )
2691        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2693    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2695        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2696        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2698    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2701        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2702        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2704    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2705        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2706    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2707        return apply_index_offset(
2708            expression.this,
2709            expression.expressions,
2710            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2711        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2713    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2714        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2715        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2718    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2719        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2721    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2723        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2724            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2725                this = self.wrap(this)
2726            return f"ANY{this}"
2727        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2729    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2730        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2732    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2735
2736        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2737            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2738            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2739
2740        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2741
2742        if default:
2743            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2744
2745        statements.append("END")
2746
2747        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2748            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2749
2750        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2752    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2755        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2757    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2758        order = expression.args.get("order")
2759        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2760        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2762    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2764        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2765        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2767    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2768        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2769
2770        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2771            func_name = "LTRIM"
2772        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2773            func_name = "RTRIM"
2774        else:
2775            func_name = "TRIM"
2776
2777        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2779    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2780        args = expression.expressions
2781        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2782            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2783
2784        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2785            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2786
2787        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2788            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2789
2790        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2792    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2793        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2794
2795        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2796        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2797            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2798
2799        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2801    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2802        return self.func(
2803            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2804        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2806    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2808        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2810    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2811        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2812        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2813        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2814        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2815        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2816        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2817        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2818        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2820    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2822        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2823        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2824        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2826    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2827        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2829    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2830        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2831        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2832        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2834    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2837    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2838        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2839
2840        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2841            path = self.escape_str(path)
2842
2843        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2844            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2845
2846        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2848    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2849        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2850            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2851            if not callable(transform):
2852                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2853                return ""
2854
2855            return transform(self, expression)
2856
2857        if isinstance(expression, int):
2858            return str(expression)
2859
2860        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2861            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2862            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2863        else:
2864            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2865            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2866
2867        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2869    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2872    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2875
2876        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2877        if unique_keys is not None:
2878            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2879        else:
2880            unique_keys = ""
2881
2882        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2883        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2884        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2885        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2886
2887        return self.func(
2888            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2889            *expression.expressions,
2890            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2891        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2893    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2894        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2896    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2897        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2898        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2899        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2900        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2901        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2902        return self.func(
2903            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2904        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2906    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2909        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2910        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2911        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2912        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2913        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2914        return self.func(
2915            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2916            this,
2917            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2918        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2920    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2922        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2923        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2924
2925        if nested_schema:
2926            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2927
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2930        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2931        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2933    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2934        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2936    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2939        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2940        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2941        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2942        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2943        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2944        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2945        return self.func(
2946            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2947        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2949    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2952        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2953        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2954        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2955        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2957    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2960        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2961        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2962        with_ = (
2963            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2964            if expressions
2965            else ""
2966        )
2967        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2969    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2970        query = expression.args.get("query")
2971        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2972        field = expression.args.get("field")
2973        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2974
2975        if query:
2976            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2977        elif unnest:
2978            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2979        elif field:
2980            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2981        else:
2982            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2983
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2986    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2987        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2989    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2990        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2991        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2992            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2993        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2994
2995        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2996            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2997            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2998
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        if this:
3001            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3002            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3003
3004        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
3006    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3007        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
3009    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3012        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3013        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3014        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3015        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
3017    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3018        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3019        parent = expression.parent
3020        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3021        return self.func(
3022            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3023        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
3025    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3026        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3027        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
3029    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3030        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3031        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3033        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
3035    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3036        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
3038    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3039        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3040        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3041        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3043    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3044        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3045
3046        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3047        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3048
3049        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3050            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3051        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3052            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3053
3054        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3056    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3057        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3059    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3062        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3064    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3067        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3069    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3072        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3074    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3075        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3077    def and_sql(
3078        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3079    ) -> str:
3080        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3082    def or_sql(
3083        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3084    ) -> str:
3085        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3087    def xor_sql(
3088        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3089    ) -> str:
3090        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3092    def connector_sql(
3093        self,
3094        expression: exp.Connector,
3095        op: str,
3096        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3097    ) -> str:
3098        if stack is not None:
3099            if expression.expressions:
3100                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3101            else:
3102                stack.append(expression.right)
3103                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3104                    for comment in expression.comments:
3105                        if comment:
3106                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3107                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3108            return op
3109
3110        stack = [expression]
3111        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3112        ops = set()
3113
3114        while stack:
3115            node = stack.pop()
3116            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3117                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3118            else:
3119                sql = self.sql(node)
3120                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3121                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3122                else:
3123                    sqls.append(sql)
3124
3125        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3126        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3128    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3131    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3134    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3135        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3137    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3140    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3143    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3146    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3147        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3148        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3149        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3150        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3151        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3152        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3153        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3155    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3156        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3159    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3160        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3161            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3162        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3164    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3167    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3169        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3170        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3171        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3172        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3173        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3175    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3177        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3178        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3179        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3180        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3181        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3182        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3183        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3184        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3186    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3187        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3188        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3189        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3190        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3191
3192        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3193            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3194
3195        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3197    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3198        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3200    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3201        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3202        if chain is not None:
3203            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3204
3205        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3207    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3208        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3209        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3210        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3212    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3214
3215        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3216        if dtype:
3217            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3218            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3219            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3220            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3222
3223        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3224        if default:
3225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3226
3227        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3228        if comment:
3229            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3230
3231        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3232        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3233
3234        if not drop and not allow_null:
3235            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3236
3237        if allow_null is not None:
3238            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3240
3241        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3243    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3245        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3246            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3247        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3249    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3250        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3253        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3254        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename) -> str:
3256    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3257        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3258            # Remove db from tables
3259            expression = expression.transform(
3260                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3261            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3263        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3265    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3266        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3267        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3268        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3269        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3271    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3272        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3273        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3275    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3276        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3277
3278        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3279            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3280        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3281            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3282        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3283            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3284        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3285            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3286        else:
3287            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3288
3289        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3290        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3291        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3292        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3293        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3294        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3296        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3297
3298        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3300    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3301        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3302            return self.expressions(
3303                expression,
3304                key="actions",
3305                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3306                skip_first=True,
3307            )
3308        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3310    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3311        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3312        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3313        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3315    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3316        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3318    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3319        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3320
3321        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3322            case = exp.case()
3323            for arg in expression.expressions:
3324                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3325            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3326
3327        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3328
3329        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3330        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3331        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3333    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3334        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3336    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3337        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3339    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3340        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3342        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3343        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3345    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3346        return self.sql(
3347            exp.Cast(
3348                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3349                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3350            )
3351        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3353    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3354        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3355            return self.func(
3356                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3357            )
3358        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3360    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3361        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3362
3363        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3364            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3365
3366        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3367            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3368                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3369
3370        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3371            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3372                return self.sql(
3373                    exp.cast(
3374                        l / r,
3375                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3376                    )
3377                )
3378
3379        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3381    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3384    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3387    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3388        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3390    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3393    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3396    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3399    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3400        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3402    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3403        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3405    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3406        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3408    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3411    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3414    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3415        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3416            return self.sql(
3417                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3418            )
3419        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3421    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3422        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3424    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3425        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3427    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3428        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3430    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3431        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3433    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3436    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3437        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3439    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3440        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3442    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3443        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3445    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3446        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3448    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3451    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3452        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3454    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3455        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3457    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3458        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3460    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3461        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3462            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3463            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3464
3465        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3467    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3468        this = expression.this
3469        expr = expression.expression
3470
3471        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3472            this, expr = expr, this
3473        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3474            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3475                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3476
3477            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3478
3479        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3481    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3483        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3486        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3488    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3489        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3490        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3491        binary_type = type(expression)
3492
3493        while stack:
3494            node = stack.pop()
3495
3496            if type(node) is binary_type:
3497                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3498                if op_func:
3499                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3500
3501                stack.append(node.right)
3502                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3503                stack.append(node.left)
3504            else:
3505                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3506
3507        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3509    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3510        args = []
3511
3512        for key in expression.arg_types:
3513            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3514
3515            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3516                for value in arg_value:
3517                    args.append(value)
3518            elif arg_value is not None:
3519                args.append(arg_value)
3520
3521        if self.normalize_functions:
3522            name = expression.sql_name()
3523        else:
3524            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3525
3526        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3528    def func(
3529        self,
3530        name: str,
3531        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3532        prefix: str = "(",
3533        suffix: str = ")",
3534        normalize: bool = True,
3535    ) -> str:
3536        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3537        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str:
3539    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3540        arg_sqls = tuple(
3541            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3542        )
3543        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3544            return self.indent(
3545                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3546            )
3547        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3549    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3550        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3552    def format_time(
3553        self,
3554        expression: exp.Expression,
3555        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3556        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3557    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3558        return format_time(
3559            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3560            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3561            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3562        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3564    def expressions(
3565        self,
3566        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3567        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3568        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3569        flat: bool = False,
3570        indent: bool = True,
3571        skip_first: bool = False,
3572        skip_last: bool = False,
3573        sep: str = ", ",
3574        prefix: str = "",
3575        dynamic: bool = False,
3576        new_line: bool = False,
3577    ) -> str:
3578        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3579
3580        if not expressions:
3581            return ""
3582
3583        if flat:
3584            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3585
3586        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3587        result_sqls = []
3588
3589        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3590            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3591            if not sql:
3592                continue
3593
3594            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3595
3596            if self.pretty:
3597                if self.leading_comma:
3598                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3599                else:
3600                    result_sqls.append(
3601                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3602                    )
3603            else:
3604                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3605
3606        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3607            if new_line:
3608                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3609                result_sqls.append("")
3610            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3611        else:
3612            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3613
3614        return (
3615            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3616            if indent
3617            else result_sql
3618        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3620    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3621        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3622        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3623        if flat:
3624            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3625        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3627    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3628        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3629        if not property_name:
3630            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3631        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3633    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3634        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3636    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3637        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3639    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3641        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3642        expressions = (
3643            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3644        )
3645        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3647    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3650        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3652    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3653        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3655    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3656        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3657        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3658        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3659        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3660
3661        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3662        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3663            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3664            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3665            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3666            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3667        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3668            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3669                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3670            else:
3671                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3672        else:
3673            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3674        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3676    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3677        table = expression.this
3678        table_alias = ""
3679
3680        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3681        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3682            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3683            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3684
3685        this = self.sql(table)
3686        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3687        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3688        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3689        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3690        if returning:
3691            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3692
3693        sep = self.sep()
3694
3695        return self.prepend_ctes(
3696            expression,
3697            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3698        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3700    @unsupported_args("format")
3701    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3702        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3704    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3705        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3706            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3707            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3708
3709        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3710        if not fmt:
3711            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3712            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3713
3714        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3716    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3719        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3720        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3721        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3723    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3725        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3726        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3727        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3729    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3732    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3733        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3736    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3738        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3739        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3740        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3741        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3742        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3743        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3745    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3746        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3748    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3750        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3751        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3752        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3753        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3755    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3758
3759        if having:
3760            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3761
3762        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3764    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3765        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3766        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3767        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3768        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3769        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3770        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3771        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3772        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3773        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3774        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3775        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3776        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3777        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3779    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3780        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3781        if key_block_size:
3782            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3783
3784        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3785        if using:
3786            return f"USING {using}"
3787
3788        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3789        if parser:
3790            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3791
3792        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3793        if comment:
3794            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3795
3796        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3797        if visible is not None:
3798            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3799
3800        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3801        if engine_attr:
3802            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3803
3804        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3805        if secondary_engine_attr:
3806            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3807
3808        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3809        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3811    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3812        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3813        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3815    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3816        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3817        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3819        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3820        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3821        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3823        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3824        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3825        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3826        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3828    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3829        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3830            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3831
3832        case = exp.Case().when(
3833            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3834            expression.args["true"],
3835            copy=False,
3836        )
3837        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3838        if else_cond:
3839            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3840
3841        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3843    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3845        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3846        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3847        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3848        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3849        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3851    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3854    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3855        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3857    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3858        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3859        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3860        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3861        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3862        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3863        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3865    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3867        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3868        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3870    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3872        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3873        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3875    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3876        arg = expression.this
3877        if not arg.type:
3878            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3879
3880            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3881
3882        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3883            return self.sql(arg)
3884
3885        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3886        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3888    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3889        this = expression.this
3890        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3891            return self.sql(this)
3892
3893        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3895    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3896        this = expression.this
3897        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3898            return self.sql(this)
3899
3900        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3902    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3903        this = expression.this
3904        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3905
3906        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3907            return self.sql(
3908                exp.cast(
3909                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3910                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3911                )
3912            )
3913
3914        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3915            return self.sql(this)
3916
3917        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3919    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3920        return self.sql(
3921            exp.func(
3922                "DATEDIFF",
3923                expression.this,
3924                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3925                "day",
3926            )
3927        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3929    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3930        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3931            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3932
3933        unit = expression.text("unit")
3934        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3935            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3936
3937        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3939    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3940        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3941
3942        return self.func(
3943            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3944        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3946    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3947        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3948            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3949            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3950            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3951            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3952
3953        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3954
3955        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3956        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3957            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3958
3959        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3961    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3962        expression.set(
3963            "expressions",
3964            [
3965                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3966                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3967                else e
3968                for e in expression.expressions
3969            ],
3970        )
3971
3972        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3974    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3975        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3976        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3977
3978        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3980    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3981        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3982        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3983
3984        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3985
3986        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3987        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3988
3989        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3990        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3991
3992        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3993        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3994
3995        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3996        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3997
3998        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
4002    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4003        to = expression.this
4004        value = expression.expression
4005        style = expression.args.get("style")
4006        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4007        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4008
4009        if not to or not value:
4010            return ""
4011
4012        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4013        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4014            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4015
4016        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4017        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4018
4019        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4020        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4021            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4022
4023            style_value = style.name
4024            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4025            if not converted_style:
4026                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4027
4028            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4029
4030            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4031                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4032            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4033                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4034            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4035                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4036            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4037                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4038
4039        if not transformed:
4040            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4041
4042        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4098    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4099        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4100
4101        if expression.expressions:
4102            upper = option.upper()
4103
4104            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4105            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4106
4107            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4108            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4109            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4110            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4111
4112        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4113
4114        if not value:
4115            return option
4116
4117        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4118
4119        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4121    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4122        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4123        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4124            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4125            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4126            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4127        else:
4128            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4129            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4130            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4131
4132        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4133        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4134
4135        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4136        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4137
4138        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4139        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4140
4141        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4142        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4143
4144        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4146    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4148        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4149
4150        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4151        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4152        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4153        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4154
4155        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4156        params = self.expressions(
4157            expression,
4158            key="params",
4159            sep=sep,
4160            new_line=True,
4161            skip_last=True,
4162            skip_first=True,
4163            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4164        )
4165
4166        if params:
4167            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4168                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4169            elif not self.pretty:
4170                params = f" {params}"
4171
4172        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4174    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4175        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4177    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4178        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4179        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4180        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4181        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4182        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4183
4184        if filter_col or retention_period:
4185            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4186
4187        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4189    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4190        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4191    ) -> str:
4192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4193        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4194        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4195        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4197    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4199        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4200        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4202    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4203        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4205    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4207        expr = expression.expression
4208
4209        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4210            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4211            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4212        else:
4213            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4214
4215        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4217    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4218        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4219            return self.sql(expression.this)
4220
4221        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4223    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4224        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4225        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4226
4227        if lower and upper:
4228            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4229        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4231    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4232        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4233        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4234        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4235        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4236        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4237        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4238
4239        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4241    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4242        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4243
4244        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4245        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4246            fill_pattern = "' '"
4247
4248        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4250    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4251        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4252        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4254    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4255        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4256
4257        parent = expression.parent
4258        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4259            parent = parent.parent
4260
4261        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4262            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4263
4264        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4265            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4266
4267        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4269    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4270        exprs = expression.expressions
4271        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4272            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4273        else:
4274            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4275
4276        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4278    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4279        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4280            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4281
4282        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4283        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4284        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4285
4286        if source_tz and timestamp:
4287            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4288                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4289            )
4290
4291        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4292
4293        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4295    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4297        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4298
4299        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4300
4301        if _with is None:
4302            with_sql = ""
4303        elif not _with:
4304            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4305        else:
4306            with_sql = " WITH"
4307
4308        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4309
4310        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4312    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4313        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4314            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4315
4316        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4317        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4318        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4319
4320        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4321        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4322
4323        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4325    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4326        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4327        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4328        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4329        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4330        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4332    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4333        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4334        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4335        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4336        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4338    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4339        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4340        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4341        empty = (
4342            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4343            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4344            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4345        )
4346
4347        error = expression.args.get("error")
4348        error = (
4349            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4350            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4351            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4352        )
4353
4354        if error and empty:
4355            error = (
4356                f"{empty} {error}"
4357                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4358                else f"{error} {empty}"
4359            )
4360            empty = ""
4361
4362        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4363
4364        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4366    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4368        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4369
4370        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4371        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4372
4373        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4374        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4375
4376        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4377
4378        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4380    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4381        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4382
4383        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4384        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4385        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4386            parent = expression.parent
4387            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4388                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4389                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4390            else:
4391                this = expression.this
4392                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4393                if this.find(exp.Column):
4394                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4395                    this_sql = (
4396                        self.expressions(this)
4397                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4398                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4399                    )
4400
4401                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4402
4403        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4405    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4408
4409        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4411    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4412        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4413
4414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4415        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4416
4417        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4418        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4419
4420        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4421
4422        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4423
4424        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4426    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4428        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4429        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4430
4431        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4433    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4435
4436        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4437        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4438
4439        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4441    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4442        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4443        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4444            func = f"*{func}"
4445
4446        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4448    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4450        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4451        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4452        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4453        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4454
4455        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble) -> str:
4457    @unsupported_args("format")
4458    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4459        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String) -> str:
4461    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4462        this = expression.this
4463        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4464
4465        if zone:
4466            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4467            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4468            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4469            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4470                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4471            )
4472
4473        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
def median_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Median):
4475    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4476        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4477            return self.sql(
4478                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4479            )
4480
4481        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4483    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4484        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4485        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4486        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4487        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4489    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4490        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4491            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4492
4493        start_ts = exp.cast(
4494            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4495        )
4496
4497        return self.sql(
4498            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4499        )
def arraysize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArraySize) -> str:
4501    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4502        dim = expression.expression
4503
4504        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4505        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4506            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4507                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4508            dim = None
4509
4510        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4511        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4512            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4513
4514        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)